Astronomi India: Perbezaan antara semakan

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The ''[[Pancha-Siddhantika|Pañcasiddhāntikā]]'' (Varahimira, 505 CE) approximates the method for determination of the meridian direction from any three positions of the shadow using Gnomon.<ref name=abraham08/> By the time of [[Aryabhata|Aryabhata I]] the motion of planets was treated to be elliptical rather than circular.<ref name=Hayashi08Aryabhata/> Other topics included definitions of different units of time, eccentric models of planetary motion, epicyclic models of planetary motion, and planetary longitude corrections for various terrestrial locations.<ref name=Hayashi08Aryabhata/>
 
== Hubungan dengan agama ==
In India astronomy and religion were interwoven during early times, beginning from the [[Vedic Period]] (2nd millennium BCE-1st millennium BCE) when the Vedas were composed.<ref name=Sarma-Ast-Ind/> Sarma (2008) notes that the Vedas are compositions of religion, and not science.<ref name=Sarma-Ast-Ind/> However, they do hold a certain amount of astronomical information.<ref name=Sarma-Ast-Ind/> The religious texts of India often contained astronomical observation for carrying out ritual associated with religion at a certain time.<ref name=Sarma-Ast-Ind/> Sarma (2008) comments on one such text:
 
{{Quotation2|In the [[Aitareya Brahmana|Aitareya Brāhmana]], we read of the moon’s monthly elongation and the cause of day and night. Seasonal and yearly sacrificial sessions helped the priests to ascertain the days of the equinoxes and solstices. The shifting of the equinoxes made the Vedic priests correspondingly shift the year backward, in tune with the accumulated precession, though the rate thereof was not envisaged. The wish to commence sacrifices at the beginning of specific constellations necessitated the identification of the constellations as fitted on the zodiacal frame. They also noticed eclipses, and identified their causes empirically.<ref name=Sarma-Ast-Ind/>}}
 
Hindus kept a [[panchanga|pañcānga]] for calculations of ''[[tithi]]'' (lunar day), vāra (weekday), [[nakshatra|naksatra]] (asterism), and ''karan'' (half lunar day) for social and religious events.<ref name=Sarma-Ast-Ind/> Klostermaier (2003) states that: "Indian astronomers calculated the duration of one ''[[Kalpa (time unit)|kalpa]]'' (a cycle of the universe during which all the heavenly bodies return to their original positions) to be 4,320,000,000 years."<ref name=Klostermaier03>Klostermaier (2003)</ref>
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== Kalendar ==
{{See|kalendar Hindu}}
 
The divisions of the year were on the basis of religious rites and seasons (''[[Rtu]]'').<ref name=van_Buitenen08>J.A.B. van Buitenen (2008)</ref> The duration from mid [[March]]—Mid [[May]] was taken to be spring (''vasanta''), mid May—mid July: summer ("grishma"), mid July—mid [[September]]: rains (''varsha''), mid September—mid [[November]]: autumn, mid November—mid [[January]]: winter, mid January—mid March: ''dew'' (''[[Shishir|śiśira]]'').<ref name=van_Buitenen08/>
 
In the ''{{IAST|Vedānga Jyotiṣa}}'', the year begins with the winter solstice.<ref>Bryant (2001), 253</ref> Hindu calendars have several [[calendar era|eras]]:
 
* The [[Hindu calendar]], counting from the start of the [[Kali Yuga]], has its epoch on [[18 February]] [[4th millennium BC|3102 BC]] Julian ([[23 January]] [[4th millennium BC|3102 BCE]] Gregorian).
* The [[Vikrama Samvat]] calendar, introduced about the 12th century, counts from 56-57 BCE.
* The "[[Saka|Saka Era]]", used in some [[Hindu calendar]]s and in the [[Indian national calendar]], has its epoch near the vernal equinox of year [[78]].
* The [[Saptarshi]] calendar traditionally has its epoch at 3076 BCE.<ref>See A. Cunningham (1883), ''A Book of Indian Eras''.</ref>
 
J.A.B. van Buitenen (2008) reports on the [[calendar]]s in India:
 
{{Quotation2|The oldest system, in many respects the basis of the classical one, is known from texts of about 1000 BC. It divides an approximate solar year of 360 days into 12 lunar months of 27 (according to the early Vedic text {{IAST|Taittirīya Saṃhitā}} 4.4.10.1–3) or 28 (according to the ''[[Atharvaveda]]'', the fourth of the Vedas, 19.7.1.) days. The resulting discrepancy was resolved by the intercalation of a leap month every 60 months. Time was reckoned by the position marked off in constellations on the ecliptic in which the Moon rises daily in the course of one lunation (the period from [[New Moon]] to New Moon) and the Sun rises monthly in the course of one year. These [[constellations]] ({{IAST|nakṣatra}}) each measure an arc of 13° 20′ of the ecliptic circle. The positions of the Moon were directly observable, and those of the Sun inferred from the Moon's position at Full Moon, when the Sun is on the opposite side of the Moon. The position of the Sun at midnight was calculated from the {{IAST|nakṣatra}} that culminated on the meridian at that time, the Sun then being in opposition to that {{IAST|nakṣatra}}.<ref name=van_Buitenen08/>}}
 
== Ahli astronomi ==
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! Name!! Year !! Contributions
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| [[Vedanga Jyotisha|Lagadha]] || 2nd-1st millennium BCE || The earliest astronomical text—named ''[[Vedanga Jyotisha|{{IAST|Vedānga Jyotiṣa}}]]''—dates back to around 1200 BC, and details several astronomical attributes generally applied for timing social and religious events.<ref name= Subbaarayappa/> The ''{{IAST|Vedānga Jyotiṣa}}'' also details astronomical calculations, calendrical studies, and establishes rules for empirical observation.<ref name= Subbaarayappa>Subbaarayappa (1989)</ref> Since the texts written by 1200 BCE were largely religious compositions the ''{{IAST|Vedānga Jyotiṣa}}'' has connections with [[Indian astrology]] and details several important aspects of the time and seasons, including lunar months, solar months, and their adjustment by a lunar leap month of ''Adhimāsa''.<ref name=Tripathi08>Tripathi (2008)</ref> ''[[Ritus]]'' and ''[[Yuga]]s'' are also described.<ref name=Tripathi08/> Tripathi (2008) holds that ' Twenty-seven constellations, eclipses, seven planets, and twelve signs of the zodiac were also known at that time.'<ref name=Tripathi08/>
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|[[Aryabhata]] || 476–550 CE ||Aryabhata was the author of the ''[[Aryabhatiya|Āryabhatīya]]'' and the ''Aryabhatasiddhanta'', which, according to Hayashi (2008): 'circulated mainly in the northwest of India and, through the [[Sassanian dynasty|Sāsānian dynasty]] (224–651) of [[Iran]], had a profound influence on the development of [[Islamic astronomy]]. Its contents are preserved to some extent in the works of Varahamihira (flourished c. 550), Bhaskara I (flourished c. 629), Brahmagupta (598–c. 665), and others. It is one of the earliest astronomical works to assign the start of each day to midnight.'<ref name=Hayashi08Aryabhata>Hayashi (2008), ''Aryabhata I''</ref> Aryabhata explicitly mentioned that the earth rotates about its axis, thereby causing what appears to be an apparent westward motion of the stars.<ref name=Hayashi08Aryabhata/> Aryabhata also mentioned that reflected sunlight is the cause behind the shining of the moon.<ref name=Hayashi08Aryabhata/> Ayrabhata's followers were particularly strong in [[South India]], where his principles of the diurnal rotation of the earth, among others, were followed and a number of secondary works were based on them.<ref name=Sarma-Ast-Ind/>
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| [[Brahmagupta]] || 598–668 CE || ''[[Brahmasphutasiddhanta|Brahmasphuta-siddhanta]]'' (Correctly Established Doctrine of Brahma, 628 CE) dealt with both [[Indian mathematics]] and astronomy. Hayashi (2008) writes: 'It was translated into Arabic in Baghdad about 771 and had a major impact on [[Islamic mathematics]] and astronomy.'<ref name=Hayashi08-Brhgupt>Hayashi (2008), ''Brahmagupta''</ref> In ''Khandakhadyaka'' (A Piece Eatable, 665 CE) Brahmagupta reinforced Aryabhata's idea of another day beginning at midnight.<ref name=Hayashi08-Brhgupt/> Bahmagupta also calculated the instantaneous motion of a planet, gave correct equations for [[parallax]], and some information related to the computation of eclipses.<ref name=Sarma-Ast-Ind/> His works introduced Indian concept of mathematics based astronomy into the [[Arab world]].<ref name=Sarma-Ast-Ind/>
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|[[Varahamihira|Varāhamihira]] || 505 CE|| Varāhamihira was an astronomer and mathematician who studied and Indian astronomy as well as the many principles of Greek, Egyptian, and Roman astronomical sciences.<ref name=Vhmr/> His ''Pañcasiddhāntikā '' is a treatise and compendium drawing from several knowledge systems.<ref name=Vhmr>''Varāhamihira''. Encyclopedia Britannica (2008)</ref>
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|[[Bhaskara I|Bhāskara I]] || 629 CE || Authored the astronomical works ''Mahabhaskariya'' (Great Book of Bhaskara), ''Laghubhaskariya'' (Small Book of Bhaskara), and the ''Aryabhatiyabhashya'' (629 CE)—a commentary on the ''Āryabhatīya'' written by Aryabhata.<ref name=Hayashi08-BhI/> Hayashi (2008) writes 'Planetary longitudes, heliacal rising and setting of the planets, conjunctions among the planets and stars, solar and lunar eclipses, and the phases of the Moon are among the topics Bhaskara discusses in his astronomical treatises.'<ref name=Hayashi08-BhI>Hayashi (2008), ''Bhaskara I''</ref> Baskara I's works were followed by Vateśvara (880 CE), who in his eight chapter ''Vateśvarasiddhānta'' devised methods for determining the parallax in longitude directly, the motion of the equinoxes and the solstices, and the quadrant of the sun at any given time.<ref name=Sarma-Ast-Ind/>
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|[[Lalla]] || 8th century CE || Author of the ''Śisyadhīvrddhida'' (Treatise Which Expands the Intellect of Students), which corrects several assumptions of Āryabhata.<ref name=Sarma08-Lalla/> The ''Śisyadhīvrddhida'' of Lalla itself is divided into two parts:''Grahādhyāya'' and ''Golādhyāya''.<ref name=Sarma08-Lalla/> ''Grahādhyāya'' (Chapter I-XIII) deals with planetary calculations, determination of the mean and true planets, three problems pertaining to diurnal motion of Earth, eclipses, rising and setting of the planets, the various cusps of the moon, planetary and astral conjunctions, and complementary situations of the sun and the moon.<ref name=Sarma08-Lalla> Sarma (2008), ''Lalla''</ref> The second part—titled ''Golādhyāya'' (chapter XIV–XXII)—deals with graphical representation of planetary motion, astronomical instruments, spherics, and emphasizes on corrections and rejection of flawed principles.<ref name=Sarma08-Lalla/> Lalla shows influence of Āryabhata, Brahmagupta, and Bhāskara I.<ref name=Sarma08-Lalla/> His works were followed by later astronomers Śrīpati, Vateśvara, and Bhāskara II.<ref name=Sarma08-Lalla/> Lalla also authored the ''Siddhāntatilaka''.<ref name=Sarma08-Lalla/>
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|[[Bhāskara II]] || 1114 CE || Authored ''{{IAST|Siddhāntaśiromaṇi}}'' (Head Jewel of Accuracy) and ''{{IAST|Karaṇakutūhala}}'' (Calculation of Astronomical Wonders) and reported on his observations of planetary positions, conjunctions, eclipses, cosmography, geography, mathematics, and astronomical equipment used in his research at the observatory in [[Ujjain]], which he headed.<ref name=Hayashi08-BhII>Hayashi (2008), ''Bhaskara II''</ref>
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|[[Shripati|Śrīpati]]|| 1045 CE || Śrīpati was a astronomer and mathematician who followed the Brhmagupta school and authored the ''Siddhāntaśekhara'' (The Crest of Established Doctrines) in 20 chapters, thereby introducing several new concepts, including moon's second ineuqlity.<ref name=Sarma-Ast-Ind/><ref name=Hayashi-Shripati>Hayashi (2008), ''Shripati</ref>
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|[[Mahendra Suri]] || 14th century CE || Mahendra Suri authored the ''Yantra-rāja'' (The King of Instruments, written in 1370 CE)—a Sanskrit work on the astrolabe, itself introduced in India during the reign of the 14th century [[Tughlaq dynasty]] ruler [[Firuz Shah Tughluq]] (1351-1388 CE).<ref name=Ohashi1997-Astrolabe/> Suri seems to have been a [[Jain]] astronomer in the service of Firuz Shah Tughluq.<ref name=Ohashi1997-Astrolabe/> The 182 verse ''Yantra-rāja'' mentions the astrolabe from the first chapter onwards, and also presents a fundamental formula along with a numerical table for drawing an astrolabe although the proof itself has not been detailed.<ref name=Ohashi1997-Astrolabe/> Longitudes of 32 stars as well as their latitudes have also been mentioned.<ref name=Ohashi1997-Astrolabe/> Mahendra Suri also explained the Gnomon, equatorial co-ordinates, and elliptical co-ordinates.<ref name=Ohashi1997-Astrolabe/> The works of Mahendra Suri may have influenced later astronomers like Padmanābha (1423 CE)—author of the ''Yantra-rāja-adhikāra'', the first chapter of his ''Yantra-kirnāvali''.<ref name=Ohashi1997-Astrolabe>Ōhashi (1997)</ref>
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|[[Nilakantha Somayaji|Nilakanthan Somayaji]] || 1444-1544 CE || In 1500, Nilakanthan Somayaji of the [[Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics]], in his ''[[Tantrasangraha]]'', revised Aryabhata's model for the planets [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] and [[Venus]]. His equation of the [[Center of mass|centre]] for these planets remained the most accurate until the time of [[Johannes Kepler]] in the 17th century.<ref name=Joseph408>Joseph, 408</ref> Nilakanthan Somayaji, in his ''Aryabhatiyabhasya'', a commentary on Aryabhata's ''Aryabhatiya'', developed his own computational system for a partially [[heliocentrism|heliocentric]] planetary model, in which Mercury, Venus, [[Mars]], [[Jupiter]] and [[Saturn]] orbit the [[Sun]], which in turn orbits the [[Earth]], similar to the [[Tychonic system]] later proposed by [[Tycho Brahe]] in the late 16th century. Nilakantha's system, however, was mathematically more effient than the Tychonic system, due to correctly taking into account the equation of the centre and [[latitude|latitudinal]] motion of Mercury and Venus. Most astronomers of the [[Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics]] who followed him accepted his planetary model.<ref name=Joseph408/><ref> Ramasubramanian etc. (1994)</ref>
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| [[Achyuta Pisharati|Acyuta Pisārati]] || |1550–1621 CE || ''Sphutanirnaya'' (Determination of True Planets) details a elliptical correction to existing notions.<ref name=Sarma-A.P./> ''Sphutanirnaya'' was later expanded to ''Rāśigolasphutānīti'' (True Longitude Computation of the Sphere of the Zodiac).<ref name=Sarma-A.P.>Sarma (2008), ''Acyuta Pisarati''</ref> Another work, ''Karanottama'' deals with eclipses, complementary relationship between the sun and the moon, and 'the derivation of the mean and true planets'.<ref name=Sarma-A.P./> In ''Uparāgakriyākrama'' (Method of Computing Eclipses), Acyuta Pisārati suggests improvements in methods of calculation of eclipses.<ref name=Sarma-A.P./>
|}
 
== Alat digunakan ==
[[File:Jantar Mantar at Jaipur.jpg|thumb|thumb|right|[[Jai Singh II|Sawai Jai Singh]] (1688–1743 CE) initiated the construction of several observatories. Shown here is the [[Jantar Mantar (Jaipur)]] observatory.]]
[[File:Jantar Delhi.jpg|thumb|right|[[Yantra Mandir]] (completed by 1743 CE), [[Delhi]].]]
[[File:Grad-Scale-Hindu-Arabic-numerals.jpg|right|thumb|Astronomical instrument with graduated scale and notation in [[Hindu-Arabic numerals]].]]
[[File:Detail from jantar mantar jaipur.jpg|right|thumb|Detail of an instrument in the [[Jaipur]] observatory.]]
[[File:2064 aryabhata-crp.jpg|thumb|right|Statue of Aryabhata on the grounds of [[Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics]], [[Pune]]. As there is no known information regarding his appearance, any image of Aryabhata originates from an artist's conception.]]
 
Among the devices used for astronomy was [[Gnomon]], known as ''Sanku'', in which the shadow of a vertical rod is applied on a horizontal plane in order to ascertain the cardinal directions, the latitude of the point of observation, and the time of observation.<ref name=Ohashiast-inst>Ōhashi (2008), ''Astronomical Instruments in India''</ref> This device finds mention in the works of Varāhamihira, Āryabhata, Bhāskara, Brahmagupta, among others.<ref name=abraham08>Abraham (2008)</ref> The [[Cross-staff]], known as ''Yasti-yantra'', was used by the time of Bhaskara II (1114 – 1185 CE).<ref name=Ohashiast-inst/> This device could vary from a simple stick to V-shaped staffs designed specifically for determining angles with the help of a calibrated scale.<ref name=Ohashiast-inst/> The [[clepsydra]] (''Ghatī -yantra'') was used in India for astronomical purposes until recent times.<ref name=Ohashiast-inst/> Ōhashi (2008) notes that: "Several astronomers also described water-driven instruments such as the model of fighting sheep."<ref name=Ohashiast-inst/>
 
The [[armillary sphere]] was used for observation in India since early times, and finds mention in the works of Āryabhata (476 CE).<ref name=Sarma08>Sarma (2008), ''Armillary Spheres in India''</ref> The ''Goladīpikā''—a detailed treatise dealing with globes and the armillary sphere was composed between 1380–1460 CE by Parameśvara.<ref name=Sarma08/> On the subject of the usage of the armillary sphere in India, Ōhashi (2008) writes: "The Indian armillary sphere (''gola-yantra'') was based on equatorial coordinates, unlike the Greek armillary sphere, which was based on ecliptical coordinates, although the Indian armillary sphere also had an ecliptical hoop. Probably, the celestial coordinates of the junction stars of the lunar mansions were determined by the armillary sphere since the seventh century or so. There was also a celestial globe rotated by flowing water."<ref name=Ohashiast-inst/>
 
An instrument invented by the mathematician and astronomer Bhaskara II (1114 – 1185 CE) consisted of a rectangular board with a pin and an index arm.<ref name=Ohashiast-inst/> This device—called the ''Phalaka-yantra''—was used to determine time from the sun's altitude.<ref name=Ohashiast-inst/> The ''Kapālayantra'' was a [[equatorial sundial]] instrument used to determine the sun’s [[azimuth]].<ref name=Ohashiast-inst/> ''Kartarī-yantra'' combined two semicircular board instruments to give rise to a 'scissors instrument'.<ref name=Ohashiast-inst/> Introduced from the Islamic world and first finding mention in the works of [[Mahendra Suri|Mahendra Sūri]]—the court astronomer of [[Firuz Shah Tughluq]] (1309 - 1388 CE)—the [[astrolabe]] was further mentioned by Padmanābha (1423 CE) and Rāmacandra (1428 CE) as its use grew in India.<ref name=Ohashiast-inst/>
 
Invented by ''Padmanābha'', a nocturnal polar rotation instrument consisted of a rectangular board with a slit and a set of pointers with concentric graduated circles.<ref name=Ohashiast-inst/> Time and other astronomical quantities could be calculated by adjusting the slit to the directions of α and β [[Ursa Minor]].<ref name=Ohashiast-inst/> Ōhashi (2008) further explains that: "Its backside was made as a quadrant with a plumb and an index arm. Thirty parallel lines were drawn inside the quadrant, and trigonometrical calculations were done graphically. After determining the sun’s altitude with the help of the plumb, time was calculated graphically with the help of the index arm."<ref name=Ohashiast-inst/>
 
Ōhashi (2008) reports on the observatories constructed by [[Jai Singh II of Amber]]:
 
{{Quotation2|The Mahārāja of Jaipur, [[Jai Singh II|Sawai Jai Singh]] (AD 1688–1743), constructed five astronomical observatories at the beginning of the eighteenth century. The observatory in [[Mathura, Uttar Pradesh|Mathura]] is not extant, but those in Delhi, [[Jaipur]], [[Ujjain]], and [[Banaras]] are. There are several huge instruments based on Hindu and Islamic astronomy. For example, the samrāt.-yantra (emperor instrument) is a huge sundial which consists of a triangular gnomon wall and a pair of quadrants toward the east and west of the gnomon wall. Time has been graduated on the quadrants.<ref name=Ohashiast-inst/>}}
 
The [[Seamlessness|seamless]] [[celestial globe]] invented in [[Mughal India]], specifically [[Lahore]] and [[Kashmir]], is considered to be one of the most impressive astronomical instruments and remarkable feats in [[metallurgy]] and [[engineering]]. All [[globe]]s before and after this were seamed, and in the 20th century, it was believed by metallurgists to be technically impossible to create a metal globe without any [[wiktionary:seam|seams]], even with modern technology. It was in the 1980s, however, that Emilie Savage-Smith discovered several celestial globes without any seams in Lahore and Kashmir. The earliest was invented in Kashmir by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in 998 AH (1589-90 CE) during [[Akbar the Great]]'s reign; another was produced in 1070 AH (1659-60 CE) by Muhammad Salih Tahtawi with Arabic and Sanskrit inscriptions; and the last was produced in Lahore by a Hindu metallurgist Lala Balhumal Lahuri in 1842 during [[Jagatjit Singh Bahadur]]'s reign. 21 such globes were produced, and these remain the only examples of seamless metal globes. These Mughal metallurgists developed the method of [[lost-wax casting]] in order to produce these globes.<ref>Savage-Smith (1985)</ref>
-->
== Perbincangan sejagat ==
Indian astronomy reached [[China]] with the expansion of Buddhism during the [[Later Han Dynasty (Five Dynasties)|Later Han dynasty]] (25–220 CE).<ref name=OhashiChina/> Further translation of Indian works on astronomy was completed in China by the [[Three Kingdoms|Three Kingdoms era]] (220–265 CE).<ref name=OhashiChina>See Ōhashi (2008) in ''Astronomy: Indian Astronomy in China''.</ref> However, the most detailed incorporation of Indian astronomy occurred only during the Tang Dynasty (618-907) when a number of Chinese scholars—such as [[Yi Xing]]— were versed both in Indian and [[Chinese astronomy]].<ref name=OhashiChina/> A system of Indian astronomy was recorded in China as ''Jiuzhi-li'' (718 CE), the author of which was an Indian by the name of [[Gautama Siddha|Qutan Xida]]—a translation of Devanagari Gotama Siddha—the director of the [[Tang dynasty]]'s national astronomical observatory.<ref name=OhashiChina/>
 
Fragments of texts during this period indicate that [[Arab]]s adopted the [[Trigonometric function|sine function]] (inherited from Indian mathematics) instead of the [[chord (geometry)|chord]]s of [[Arc (geometry)|arc]] used in [[Greek mathematics|Hellenistic mathematics]].<ref name=Dallal162>Dallal, 162</ref> Another Indian influence was an approximate formula used for timekeeping by [[Astronomy in medieval Islam|Muslim astronomers]].<ref>King, 240</ref>
 
Nearly a thousand years later in the 17th century, the [[Mughal Empire]] saw a synthesis between Islamic and Indian astronomy, where Islamic observational instruments were combined with Hindu computational techniques. While there appears to have been little concern for planetary theory, [[Muslim]] and Hindu astronomers in India continued to make advances in observational astronomy and produced nearly a hundred [[Zij]] treatises. [[Humayun]] built a personal observatory near [[Delhi]], while [[Jahangir]] and [[Shah Jahan]] were also intending to build observatories but were unable to do so. After the decline of the Mughal Empire, it was a Hindu king, [[Jai Singh II of Amber]], who attempted to revive both the Islamic and Hindu traditions of astronomy which were stagnating in his time. In the early 18th century, he built several large observatories called [[Yantra Mandir]]s in order to rival [[Ulugh Beg]]'s [[Samarkand]] observatory and in order to improve on the earlier Hindu computations in the ''Siddhantas'' and Islamic observations in ''[[Zij-i-Sultani]]''. The instruments he used were influenced by Islamic astronomy, while the computational techniques were derived from Hindu astronomy.<ref>Sharma (1995), 8-9</ref><ref>Baber, 82-89</ref>
 
Through Islamic astronomy, Indian astronomy had an influence on [[Europe]]an astronomy via [[Arabic language|Arabic]] translations. During the [[Latin translations of the 12th century]], [[Muhammad al-Fazari]]'s ''Great Sindhind'', which was based on the ''[[Surya Siddhanta]]'' and the works of Brahmagupta, was translated into [[Latin]] in 1126 and was influential at the time.<ref>Joseph, 306</ref>
 
Some scholars have suggested that knowledge of the results of the [[Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics]] may have been transmitted to Europe through the trade route from [[Kerala]] by traders and [[Jesuit]] missionaries.<ref name=almeida/> Kerala was in continuous contact with [[China]] and [[Arabia]], and [[Europe]]. The existence of circumstantial evidence<ref>Raju (2001)</ref> such as communication routes and a suitable chronology certainly make such a transmission a possibility. However, there is no direct evidence by way of relevant manuscripts that such a transmission took place.<ref name=almeida>Almeida etc. (2001)</ref>
 
Later in the early 18th century, [[Jai Singh II of Amber]] invited European [[Jesuit]] astronomers to one of his [[Yantra Mandir]] observatories, who had bought back the astronomical tables compiled by [[Philippe de La Hire]] in 1702. After examining La Hire's work, Jai Singh concluded that the observational techniques and instruments used in European astronomy were inferior to those used in India at the time. It is uncertain whether he was aware of the [[Copernican Revolution]] via the Jesuits.<ref>Baber, 89-90</ref>
 
== Lihat juga ==