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The concept of inequality is distinct from that of poverty<ref>For poverty see [[Foster Greer Thorbecke|FGT metrics]].</ref> and [[distributive justice|fairness]]. '''Income inequality metrics''' or '''income distribution metrics''' are used by social scientists to measure the distribution of [[income]], and [[economic inequality]] among the participants in a particular economy, such as that of a specific country or of the world in general. While different theories may try to explain how income inequality comes about, income inequality [[Metric (mathematics)|metrics]] simply provide a [[Systems of measurement|system of measurement]] used to determine the dispersion of incomes.
Konsep ketimpangan adalah berbeza dari yang <ref>For poverty see [[Foster Greer Thorbecke|FGT metrics]].</ref> dan [[distributif keadilan|kewajaran]]. '''Pendapatan metrik ketidaksetaraan'''a tau '''distribusi pendapatan metrik''' digunakan oleh saintis sosial untuk mengukur pengedaran [pendapatan []], dan [[jurang] ekonomi] di antara para peserta dalam ekonomi tertentu, seperti yang dari negara tertentu atau dunia secara umum. Sementara teori yang berbeza mungkin cuba menjelaskan bagaimana ketimpangan pendapatan berasal tentang, ketimpangan pendapatan [[Metrik (matematik)|metrik]] hanya menyediakan [[Sistem pengukuran]] digunakan untuk menentukan penyebaran pendapatan.
 
'''IncomeLaba distributionpengedaran''' hasselalu alwaysmenjadi beenpusat aperhatian centralteori concernekonomi of economic theory anddan [[economicdasar policyekonomi]]. Classical economistsekonomi suchklasik asseperti [[Adam Smith]], [[Thomas Malthus]] anddan [[David Ricardo]] wereadalah mainlyterutama concernedberkaitan withdengan factorfaktor incomepengagihan distributionpendapatan, that is, theiaitu [[distributionedaran [(economicsekonomi)|distributionpengedaran]] of income betweenpendapatan theantara mainutama [[factorsfaktor of productionpengeluaran]], landtanah, labourtenaga kerja anddan capitalmodal. ItHal isini oftensering relatedberkaitan todengan [[wealthkekayaan distributionedaran]] althoughwalaupun separatefaktor factorsberasingan influencemempengaruhi [[wealthkekayaan inequalityketimpangan]].
 
ekonomi moden juga membahas masalah ini, tetapi telah lebih peduli dengan pengedaran pendapatan di seluruh individu dan rumah tangga. Penting keprihatinan teoritis dan dasar termasuk hubungan antara ketimpangan pendapatan dan [[pertumbuhan ekonomi]]. Artikel [[Ekonomi ketidaksetaraan]] membahas aspek-aspek sosial dan dasar pertanyaan pengedaran pendapatan.
Modern economists have also addressed this issue, but have been more concerned with the distribution of income across individuals and households. Important theoretical and policy concerns include the relationship between income inequality and [[economic growth]]. The article [[Economic inequality]] discusses the social and policy aspects of income distribution questions.
 
==Mentakrifkan pendapatan==
==Defining income==
Semua metrik diterangkan di bawah ini berlaku untuk menilai kepincangan edaran pelbagai jenis sumber. Di sini fokusnya adalah pada pendapatan sebagai sumber kuasa. Karena ada berbagai bentuk "pendapatan", menyiasat jenis pendapatan harus secara jelas dijelaskan.
All of the metrics described below are applicable to evaluating the distributional inequality of various kinds of resources. Here the focus is on income as a resource. As there are various forms of "income", the investigated kind of income has to be clearly described.
 
Salah satu bentuk pendapatan adalah jumlah barangan dan perkhidmatan bahawa seseorang menerima, dan dengan demikian tidak perlu adanya wang atau kas yang terlibat. Jika [subsistensi [petani]] di Uganda tumbuh gandum sendiri itu akan dikira sebagai pendapatan. Perkhidmatan kesihatan awam dan pendidikan juga dikira masuk Seringkali pengeluaran atau pengambilan (yang adalah sama dalam arti ekonomi) digunakan untuk mengukur pendapatan. The [[Bank Dunia]] menggunakan apa yang disebut "hidup tinjauan pengukuran standard" <ref> Survei Pengukuran Standard Hidup: http://www.worldbank.org/lsms/ </ ref> untuk mengukur pendapatan. Ini terdiri daripada kuesioner dengan lebih daripada 200 soalan. Survei telah selesai di sebahagian besar [[negara membangun]].
One form of income is the total amount of goods and services that a person receives, and thus there is not necessarily money or cash involved. If a [[subsistence farmer]] in Uganda grows his own grain it will count as income. Services like public health and education are also counted in. Often expenditure or consumption (which is the same in an economic sense) is used to measure income. The [[World Bank]] uses the so-called "living standard measurement surveys"<ref>Living Standard Measurement Surveys: http://www.worldbank.org/lsms/</ref> to measure income. These consist of questionnaires with more than 200 questions. Surveys have been completed in most [[developing countries]].
 
Diterapkan pada analisis ketimpangan pendapatan dalam negara, "pendapatan" sering berdiri untuk cukai pendapatan pada individu atau pada rumah tangga. mengukur ketimpangan pendapatan Disini juga boleh digunakan untuk membandingkan pengedaran pendapatan sebelum dan selepas cukai dalam rangka untuk mengukur kesan kadar cukai progresif.
Applied to the analysis of income inequality within countries, "income" often stands for the taxed income per individual or per household. Here income inequality measures also can be used to compare the income distributions before and after taxation in order to measure the effects of progressive tax rates.
 
== Sifat metrik ketidaksetaraan ==
==Properties of inequality metrics==
Dalam literatur ekonomi terhadap ketimpangan empat sifat umumnya mendalilkan bahawa setiap saiz ketimpangan harus memenuhi:
In the economic literature on inequality four properties are generally postulated that any measure of inequality should satisfy:
 
===AnonymityAnonimiti===
Asumsi ini menyatakan bahawa ketidaksetaraan metrik tidak bergantung pada "pelabelan" dari setiap individu dalam ekonomi dan semua yang penting adalah pengedaran pendapatan. Sebagai contoh, dalam ekonomi terdiri dari dua orang, Mr Smith dan Mrs Jones, di mana salah satunya mempunyai 60% daripada pendapatan dan 40% yang lain, ketimpangan metrik harus sama apakah itu adalah Mr Smith atau Ny Jones yang mengandungi pangsa 40% .. Properti ini membezakan konsep ketimpangan dari tahun [distributif [keadilan |] kewajaran] mana yang memiliki tingkat pendapatan tertentu dan bagaimana ia telah acquired adalah sangat penting. Sebuah ketimpangan metrik adalah sebuah kenyataan sederhana tentang bagaimana pendapatan diedarkan, bukan tentang siapa orang-orang tertentu dalam ekonomi atau apa jenis pendapatan yang mereka "pantas".
This assumption states that an inequality metric does not depend on the "labeling" of individuals in an economy and all that matters is the distribution of income. For example, in an economy composed of two people, Mr. Smith and Mrs. Jones, where one of them has 60% of the income and the other 40%, the inequality metric should be the same whether it is Mr. Smith or Mrs. Jones who has the 40% share. This property distinguishes the concept of inequality from that of [[Distributive justice|fairness]] where who owns a particular level of income and how it has been acquired is of central importance. An inequality metric is a statement simply about how income is distributed, not about who the particular people in the economy are or what kind of income they "deserve".
 
===ScaleSkala independencekemerdekaan===
Property ini mengatakan bahawa ekonomi kaya tidak boleh secara automatik dianggap lebih merata oleh pembinaan. Dengan kata lain, jika pendapatan setiap orang dalam suatu perekonomian adalah dua kali ganda (atau didarab oleh pemalar positif) maka metrik keseluruhan ketimpangan tidak akan berubah. Tentu saja hal yang sama berlaku untuk negara miskin. Pendapatan ketimpangan metrik harus bebas dari tingkat agregat pendapatan.
This property says that richer economies should not be automatically considered more unequal by construction. In other words, if every person's income in an economy is doubled (or multiplied by any positive constant) then the overall metric of inequality should not change. Of course the same thing applies to poorer economies. The inequality income metric should be independent of the aggregate level of income.
 
===PopulationPenduduk independencekemerdekaan===
Demikian pula, metrik ketimpangan pendapatan tidak boleh bergantung pada apakah suatu ekonomi mempunyai penduduk besar atau kecil. Ekonomi dengan hanya beberapa orang seharusnya tidak automatik undian oleh metrik sebagai lebih sama daripada ekonomi yang besar dengan banyak orang. Ini bermakna bahawa metrik harus bebas dari tingkat penduduk.
Similarly, the income inequality metric should not depend on whether an economy has a large or small population. An economy with only a few people should not be automatically judged by the metric as being more equal than a large economy with lots of people. This means that the metric should be independent of the level of population.
 
===TransferPrinsip principlepemindahan===
[[Pigou-prinsip Dalton | Pigou-Dalton]], atau pemindahan, prinsip adalah andaian yang membuat ketidaksetaraan metrik sebenarnya merupakan saiz ketimpangan. Dalam bentuk yang lemah itu mengatakan bahawa jika beberapa pendapatan dipindahkan dari orang kaya kepada orang miskin, sementara masih mengekalkan urutan peringkat pendapatan, maka kepincangan diukur tidak harus meningkat. Dalam bentuk yang kuat, tahap ketimpangan diukur harus menurun.
The [[Pigou–Dalton principle|Pigou–Dalton]], or transfer, principle is the assumption that makes an inequality metric actually a measure of inequality. In its weak form it says that if some income is transferred from a rich person to a poor person, while still preserving the order of income ranks, then the measured inequality should not increase. In its strong form, the measured level of inequality should decrease.
 
== Metrik Common incomeketimpangan inequalitypendapatan metrics==
AmongDi theantara mostmetrik commonyang metricspaling usedumum todigunakan measureuntuk inequalitymengukur areketimpangan theadalah indeks Gini index (alsojuga knowndikenali assebagai [[Ginipekali coefficientGini]]), thepada [[indeks Theil index]], and thedan [[Hoover index.]]. TheyMereka mempunyai semua haveempat allsifat fouryang propertiesdinyatakan describeddi aboveatas.
 
Property tambahan metrik ketimpangan yang mungkin dikehendaki dari titik pandang empiris adalah bahawa 'decomposability' dari. Ini bermakna bahawa jika ekonomi tertentu dipecah menjadi sub-daerah, dan metrik ketidaksetaraan dikira untuk setiap kawasan sub secara berasingan, maka saiz ketidaksetaraan bagi perekonomian secara keseluruhan harus menjadi rata-rata tertimbang dari ketidaksetaraan daerah (dalam bentuk yang lebih lemah, itu bererti bahawa ia harus menjadi fungsi jelas dari pertidaksamaan sub-serantau, walaupun belum tentu linear). Dari indeks di atas, hanya [[Theil index]] memiliki sifat ini.
An additional property of an inequality metric that may be desirable from an empirical point of view is that of 'decomposability'. This means that if a particular economy is broken down into sub-regions, and an inequality metric is computed for each sub region separately, then the measure of inequality for the economy as a whole should be a weighted average of the regional inequalities (in a weaker form, it means that it should be an explicit function of sub-regional inequalities, though not necessarily linear). Of the above indexes, only the [[Theil index]] has this property.
 
Kerana ketimpangan pendapatan metrik ini adalah ringkasan statistik yang berusaha untuk agregat semua edaran pendapatan ke dalam indeks tunggal, maklumat mengenai kepincangan diukur berkurang. Penurunan maklumat tentu saja adalah tujuan tindakan ketimpangan pengkomputeran, kerana mengurangkan kerumitan.
Because these income inequality metrics are summary statistics that seek to aggregate an entire distribution of incomes into a single index, the information on the measured inequality is reduced. This information reduction of course is the goal of computing inequality measures, as it reduces complexity.
 
Penurunan yang lebih lemah dari kompleksitas semua jika pengedaran pendapatan dijelaskan oleh saham dari jumlah keseluruhan pendapatan. Alih-alih untuk menunjukkan saiz tunggal, masyarakat di bawah penyelidikan dibahagi menjadi segmen, misalnya ke [[Pendapatan kuintil # Quintiles | kuintil]] (atau peratusan lain dari penduduk). Biasanya setiap segmen mengandungi saham yang sama berpendapatan. Dalam hal suatu pengedaran pendapatan tidak merata, saham pendapatan yang terdapat di setiap segmen berbeza. Dalam banyak kes kepincangan indeks yang disebut di atas dikira dari data segmen tersebut tanpa menilai ketidaksetaraan dalam segmen. Semakin tinggi jumlah segmen (misalnya desil bukan kuintil), semakin dekat diukur ketimpangan edaran sampai ke ketimpangan yang nyata. (Jika ketimpangan dalam segmen diketahui, ketidaksetaraan total dapat ditentukan oleh mereka metrik ketidaksetaraan yang memiliki sifat sebagai "decomposable".)
A weaker reduction of complexity is achieved if income distributions are described by shares of total income. Rather than to indicate a single measure, the society under investigation is split into segments, e.g. into [[Income quintiles#Quintiles|quintiles]] (or any other percentage of population). Usually each segment contains the same share of income earners. In case of an unequal income distribution, the shares of income available in each segment are different. In many cases the inequality indices mentioned above are computed from such segment data without evaluating the inequalities within the segments. The higher the amount of segments (e.g. deciles instead of quintiles), the closer the measured inequality of distribution gets to the real inequality. (If the inequality within the segments is known, the total inequality can be determined by those inequality metrics which have the property of being "decomposable".)
 
tindakan Kuintil ketidaksetaraan memenuhi prinsip pemindahan hanya dalam bentuk yang lemah kerana adanya perubahan dalam pengagihan pendapatan di luar quintiles relevan tidak dijemput oleh tindakan ini, hanya pengedaran pendapatan antara yang sangat kaya dan hal-hal yang sangat miskin sementara ketidaksetaraan di tengah memainkan peranan tidak.
Quintile measures of inequality satisfy the transfer principle only in its weak form because any changes in income distribution outside the relevant quintiles are not picked up by this measures; only the distribution of income between the very rich and the very poor matters while inequality in the middle plays no role.
 
Keterangan tiga saiz ketidaksetaraan dijelaskan dalam artikel Wikipedia yang bersangkutan. Subbagian berikut meliputi mereka hanya sebentar.
Details of the three inequality measures are described in the respective Wikipedia articles. The following subsections cover them only briefly.
 
===GiniIndeks indexGini===
{{Main|GiniPekali coefficientGini}}
TheKisaran range of theindeks Gini index is betweenantara 0 anddan 1 (0% anddan 100%), wheredi mana 0 indicatesmenunjukkan perfectkemerataan equalitysempurna anddan 1 (100%) indicatesmenunjukkan maximumkepincangan inequalitymaksimum.
 
Indeks Gini adalah indeks ketimpangan yang paling sering digunakan. Alasan populariti ialah bahawa hal itu mudah untuk memahami bagaimana untuk mengira indeks Gini sebagai nisbah dari dua daerah di [kurva Lorenz []] diagram. Sebagai suatu kerugian, indeks Gini peta hanya nombor hotel dari diagram, namun diagram itu sendiri tidak didasarkan pada model proses pengedaran. "Arti" daripada indeks Gini hanya boleh difahami secara empirik. Selain Gini tidak menangkap mana di ketimpangan edaran berlaku. Akibatnya dua pengedaran pendapatan yang sangat berbeza boleh mempunyai indeks Gini yang sama.
The Gini index is the most frequently used inequality index. The reason for its popularity is that it is easy to understand how to compute the Gini index as a ratio of two areas in [[Lorenz curve]] diagrams. As a disadvantage, the Gini index only maps a number to the properties of a diagram, but the diagram itself is not based on any model of a distribution process. The "meaning" of the Gini index only can be understood empirically. Additionally the Gini does not capture where in the distribution the inequality occurs. As a result two very different distributions of income can have the same Gini index.
 
=== Indeks Hoover index===
{{Main|HooverIndeks indexHoover}}
Indeks Hoover adalah yang paling sederhana dari semua tindakan ketidakadilan untuk mengira: Ini adalah perkadaran daripada semua pendapatan yang harus diedarkan untuk mencapai keadaan kesamaan yang sempurna.
The Hoover index is the simplest of all inequality measures to calculate: It is the proportion of all income which would have to be redistributed to achieve a state of perfect equality.
 
InDalam adunia perfectlyyang equalsempurna worldsama, notidak resourcesada wouldsumber needdaya toperlu beharus redistributeddiedarkan tountuk achievemencapai equaledaran distributionyang sama: aindeks Hoover index ofdari 0. InDalam adunia worlddi inmana whichsemua allpendapatan incomeyang wasditerima receivedoleh bysatu just one familykeluarga, almosthampir 100% ofdari thatpendapatan incomeyang wouldakan needperlu to be redistributeddiedarkan (i.e.iaitu, takendiambil anddan givendiberikan tokepada otherkeluarga familieslain) inuntuk ordermencapai to achieve equalitykesamarataan. TheIndeks Hoover indexkemudian thenberkisar ranges betweenantara 0 anddan 1 (0% anddan 100%), wheredi mana 0 indicatesmenunjukkan perfectkemerataan equalitysempurna anddan 1 (100%) indicatesmenunjukkan maximumkepincangan inequalitymaksimum.
 
===TheilIndeks indexTheil===
{{Main|TheilIndeks indexTheil}}
ASebuah indeks Theil index ofdari 0 indicatesmenunjukkan perfectkesamaan equalityyang sempurna. ASebuah indeks Theil index ofdari 1 indicates that the distributionalmenunjukkan entropybahawa ofentropi theedaran systemdari undersistem investigationdi isbawah almostpenyelidikan similarhampir toserupa adengan systemsistem withdengan anpengedaran 82:18 distribution. <ref>http Http: / / www.poorcity.richcity.org/calculator/?quantiles=82.4, 17.,6 | 17.6,82.4 </ ref> This is slightly moreHal inequalini thansedikit thelebih inequalitytdk insama adari systemketimpangan todalam whichsistem thedimana "80:20 [[Pareto principleprinsip]]" applies.berlaku <ref>A Sebuah indeks Theil index ofdari 0.,5 characterizesciri systemssistem whichyang areberhampiran. close to apengedaran 74:26 distribution. AEdaran 92:8 distributionakan wouldmenghasilkan yield aindeks Theil index of 2 anddan 98:2 wouldakan yieldmenghasilkan 4. SomeBeberapa specialpemerhatian observationskhusus: ForUntuk aedaran 80:20 distribution (Pareto principleprinsip) theindeks Theil index isadalah 0.83. ForUntuk 73:27 theindeks Theil indexdan and theindeks Hoover indexadalah are identicalidentik: BothKedua-duanya areadalah 0.,46. ForUntuk 62:38 theperbezaan differenceantara between theindeks Theil index (representingmewakili stochasticpengedaran distributionstokastik) anddan theindeks Hoover index (representingmewakili apengedaran perfectlysempurna planned distributiondirancang) reachesmencapai a minimum ofminimal -0.,12. </ref Ref> TheIndeks Theil indexboleh candiubah bemenjadi transformed intosebuah] anindeks [[Atkinson index]], whichyang hasmempunyai aliputan range betweenantara 0 anddan 1 (0% anddan 100%), wheredi mana 0 indicatesmenunjukkan perfectkemerataan equalitysempurna anddan 1 (100%) indicatesmenunjukkan maximumkepincangan inequalitymaksimum.
 
Indeks Theil merupakan saiz entropi. Seperti untuk setiap edaran sumber daya dan dengan merujuk pada teori maklumat, "entropi maksimum" berlaku sekali berpendapatan tidak dapat dibezakan oleh sumber daya mereka, iaitu ketika ada persamaan yang sempurna. Dalam masyarakat nyata orang boleh dibezakan oleh sumber daya yang berbeza, dengan sumber daya yang pendapatan. Semakin "dibezakan" mereka, semakin rendah adalah "entropi sebenarnya" dari sebuah sistem yang terdiri daripada mereka yang berpendapatan dan pendapatan. Juga didasarkan pada teori maklumat, jurang antara kedua-dua entropi boleh disebut "[[redundansi (maklumat teori) | redundansi ]]".< ref> ISO / IEC DIS 2382-16:1996 ([[Teori maklumat]]) < / ref> itu berperilaku seperti [[Negentropy | entropi] negatif].
The Theil index is an entropy measure. As for any resource distribution and with reference to information theory, "maximum entropy" occurs once income earners cannot be distinguished by their resources, i.e. when there is perfect equality. In real societies people can be distinguished by their different resources, with the resources being incomes. The more "distinguishable" they are, the lower is the "actual entropy" of a system consisting of income and income earners. Also based on information theory, the gap between these two entropies can be called "[[Redundancy (information theory)|redundancy]]".<ref>ISO/IEC DIS 2382-16:1996 ([[Information theory]])</ref> It behaves like a [[Negentropy|negative entropy]].
 
ForUntuk theindeks Theil indexjuga alsoistilah the"entropi term "Theil entropy" hadtelah been useddigunakan. ThisHal causedini confusionmenyebabkan kebingungan. As anSebagai examplecontoh, [[Amartya Sen]] commentedberkomentar onpada theindeks Theil index, "givenmengingat thehubungan associationkiamat ofdengan doomentropi withdalam entropykonteks in the context of thermodynamicstermodinamik, itmungkin maymemerlukan takesedikit amasa littleuntuk timemembiasakan todiri getentropi usedsebagai tohal entropyyang as a good thingbaik." <ref>pp. hal 35, chapterbab 2.11 indi Amartya Sen anddan James E. Foster: ''On Economic InequalityPada''Ketimpangan Ekonomi, Oxford University Press, 1996 ([http://www.umverteilung.de/oei/ Python script] foruntuk apilihan selectionformula ofdi formulas in the bookbuku). <ref /ref> ItPenting isuntuk importantmemahami tobahawa understandpeningkatan that an increasingindeks Theil index ''does nottidak''mengindikasikan indicateentropi an increasing entropymeningkat, instead itmelainkan indicatesmenunjukkan anadanya increasingredundansi redundancykenaikan (decreasingpenurunan entropyentropi).
 
Tinggi ketidaksetaraan Theil redundancies hasil tinggi. redundansi quality bererti entropi rendah. Tapi ini tidak selalu menyiratkan bahawa ketimpangan sangat tinggi adalah "baik", kerana entropi yang sangat rendah juga boleh menyebabkan proses pampasan bahan letupan. Juga tidak menggunakan indeks Theil selalu menyiratkan bahawa ketimpangan sangat rendah (redundansi rendah, entropi quality) adalah "baik", kerana entropi yang tinggi berkaitan dengan proses sumber lambat, lemah dan tidak cekap peruntukan.
High inequality yields high Theil redundancies. High redundancy means low entropy. But this does not necessarily imply that a very high inequality is "good", because very low entropies also can lead to explosive compensation processes. Neither does using the Theil index necessarily imply that a very low inequality (low redundancy, high entropy) is "good", because high entropy is associated with slow, weak and inefficient resource allocation processes.
 
Ada tiga variasi daripada indeks Theil. Ketika diterapkan pada pengagihan pendapatan, indeks Theil pertama berkaitan dengan sistem di mana pendapatan yang stokastik dibahagikan kepada mereka yang berpendapatan, sedangkan indeks Theil kedua berkaitan dengan sistem dalam masa yang berpendapatan yang stokastik diedarkan kepada pendapatan.
There are three variants of the Theil index. When applied to income distributions, the first Theil index relates to systems within which incomes are stochastically distributed to income earners, whereas the second Theil index relates to systems within which income earners are stochastically distributed to incomes.
 
ASebuah thirdketiga "symmetrized" indeks Theil indexadalah israta-rata thegeometri arithmeticdari averagedua ofindeks the two previous indicessebelumnya. InterestinglyMenariknya, the formula of therumus thirdindeks Theil indexketiga hasmempunyai somebeberapa similaritypersamaan withdengan theindeks Hoover index (asseperti explainedyang indinyatakan thedalam relatedartikel articlesberkaitan). AsSeperti indalam casekes of theindeks Hoover index, the symmetrizedindeks Theil index does not change whensymmetrized swappingtidak theberubah incomesbila withmenukar thependapatan incomedengan earnersberpendapatan. HowBagaimana tomenghasilkan generatebahawa that thirdindeks Theil indexketiga bymelalui means of aperhitungan spreadsheet computationlangsung directlydari frompengedaran distributiondata dataditunjukkan isdi shownbawah belowini.
 
AnProperty importantpenting propertydari of theindeks Theil indexyang whichmembuat makes its applicationaplikasi popular is itsadalah decomposability intoke thedalam betweenkelompok-groupantara dan di anddalam withinbahagian-group componentkumpulan. ForSebagai examplecontoh, theindeks Theil indexdari ofketimpangan overallpendapatan incomesecara inequalitykeseluruhan candapat bemembusuk decomposeddi in the betweenkawasan-kawasan-regionantara anddan withindi regiondalam componentsbahagian ofwilayah inequalityketidaksetaraan, while thesementara relativesaham sharerelatif attributableberkaitan todengan thekomponen betweenantar-regionwilayah componentmenunjukkan suggestskepentingan therelatif relativedari importancedimensi ofspasial spatialketimpangan dimensionpendapatan. of<Nama income inequality.<ref name= "Spatialdekomposisi decompositionTata Ruang">Novotny Novotný, J., 2007, OnPada the measurement ofpengukuran regionaljurang inequalityserantau: DoesApakah spatialdimensi dimensionspasial ofbahan incomeketimpangan inequality matterpendapatan? Annals of RegionalScience ScienceDaerah,, 41, 3, 563-580. http://web.natur.cuni.cz/ ~ pepino/NOVOTNY2007AnnalsofRegionalScience.pdf </ ref>
 
====Comparison ofPerbandingan theindeks Theil indexdan and theindeks Hoover index====
[[ImageGambar: Theil Hoover.jpg | thumb | 440px |Illustration ofIlustrasi thetentang relationhubungan betweenantara T <math> Theil index <math>T</ math> anddan theindeks Hoover index <math> H </ math> foruntuk societiesmasyarakat dividesterbahagi intokepada twodua quantilesTaburan ("a- fractiles "). HereIni theindeks Hoover index and thedan Theil areadalah equalsama atdengan a value ofnilai aroundsekitar 0.,46. TheKeluk redmerah curvemenunjukkan showsperbezaan theantara difference between theindeks Theil index anddan theindeks Hoover indexsebagai asfungsi adari function of theindeks Hoover index. TheKeluk greenhijau curvemenunjukkan shows theindeks Theil indexdibahagi divideddengan by theindeks Hoover indexsebagai asfungsi adari function of theindeks Hoover index.]]The Indeks Theil. indexMenunjukkan indicatesedaran theredundansi distributional redundancy of a systemsistem, withindi whichmana incomespendapatan areyang assignedditugaskan tountuk incomeberpendapatan earners in adalam stochasticproses processstokastik. InSebagai comparisonperbandingan, theindeks Hoover indexmenunjukkan indicates thesaiz minimum sizedari ofbahagian thependapatan income share of a societymasyarakat, whichyang wouldharus havediedarkan tountuk bemencapai redistributedentropi in order to reach maximum entropymaksimum. Not toTidak exceedmelebihi thatsaiz minimum sizeakan wouldmemerlukan requireredistribusi asempurna perfectlydirancang. plannedOleh redistribution.kerana Thereforeitu theindeks Hoover index is theadalah "non-stochasticstokastik" counterpart to theindeks "stochasticstokastik" Theil index.
 
Menerapkan indeks Theil untuk proses peruntukan di dunia nyata tidak''''tidak bererti bahawa proses ini stokastik: yang Theil menghasilkan''''jarak antara pengedaran sumber memerintahkan dalam suatu sistem diamati tahap akhir pengedaran sumber stokastik dalam sistem tertutup. Demikian pula, melaksanakan indeks Hoover tidak''tidak''menyiratkan bahawa proses peruntukan berlaku dalam ekonomi sempurna dirancang: indeks hasil tuai Hoover yang''''jarak antara pengedaran sumber daya dalam suatu sistem diamati tahap akhir dari suatu pemerataan "yang dirancang "pengedaran sumber. Untuk kedua-dua indeks, seperti perimbangan yang hanya berfungsi sebagai rujukan, bukan sebagai tujuan.
Applying the Theil index to allocation processes in the real world does ''not'' imply that these processes are stochastic: the Theil yields the ''distance'' between an ordered resource distribution in an observed system to the final stage of stochastic resource distribution in a closed system. Similarly, applying the Hoover index does ''not'' imply that allocation processes occur in a perfectly planned economy: the Hoover index yields the ''distance'' between the resource distribution in an observed system to the final stage of a planned "equalization" of resource distribution. For both indices, such an equalization only serves as a reference, not as a goal.
 
ForUntuk aedaran givendiberi distribution theindeks Theil indexdapat canlebih bebesar largerdaripada than theindeks Hoover indexatau orlebih smallerkecil thandaripada theindeks Hoover index:
* Untuk''''berarti ketidaksetaraan quality indeks Theil lebih besar daripada indeks Hoover. /> <Br Ini untuk mencapai keseimbangan (entropi maksimum) dalam sistem tertutup, lebih banyak sumber daya harus diperuntukkan daripada kes dirancang dan dioptimumkan proses realokasi, dimana hanya saham minimum yang diperlukan sumber daya harus diperuntukkan. Untuk sistem membuka eksport entropi (import redundansi) akan membolehkan untuk mempertahankan dinamik pengedaran didorong oleh ketimpangan tinggi.
*For ''high'' inequalities the Theil index is larger than the Hoover index.<br />This means for achieving equilibrium (maximum entropy) in a closed system, more resources would have to be reallocated than in case of a planned and optimized reallocation process, where only the necessary minimum share of resources would have to be reallocated. For an open system the export of entropy (import of redundancy) would allow to maintain the distribution dynamics driven by high inequality.
* Untuk''''ketidaksetaraan rendah indeks Theil lebih kecil daripada indeks Hoover /> <br sini,. Di jalan untuk mencapai keseimbangan, yang dirancang dan dioptimumkan realokasi sumber daya akan menyumbang lebih kepada dinamik redistribusi dari redistribusi stokastik. Ini juga intuitif difahami, sebagai jurang rendah juga melemahkan keinginan untuk mengedarkan semula sumber. Orang-orang di sistem tersebut boleh membiarkan atau bahkan mendorong peningkatan jurang tersebut. Kerana ini akan meningkat redundansi (suatu penurunan entropi), redundansi harus diimport ke (entropi harus dieksport dari) masyarakat. Dalam hal ini masyarakat perlu sistem terbuka.
*For ''low'' inequalities the Theil index is smaller than the Hoover index.<br />Here, on the path to reaching equilibrium, a planned and optimized reallocation of resources would contribute more to the dynamics of redistribution than stochastic redistribution. This also is intuitively understandable, as low inequalities also weaken the urge to redistribute resources. People in such a system may tolerate or even foster an increase the inequality. As this is would be an increase of redundancy (an decrease of entropy), redundancy would have to be imported into (entropy would have to be exported from) the society. In that case the society needs to be an open system.
Dalam rangka meningkatkan redundansi dalam kategori pembahagian masyarakat sebagai sistem tertutup, entropi perlu dieksport daripada operasi subsistem dalam kategori yang ekonomi untuk subsistem yang lain dengan kategori entropi lain dalam masyarakat. Sebagai contoh, entropi sosial mungkin meningkat. Namun, di dunia nyata, masyarakat adalah sistem terbuka, tetapi keterbukaan dibatasi oleh kemampuan pertukaran entropi dari antara muka antara masyarakat dan persekitaran masyarakat tersebut. Untuk masyarakat dengan pengedaran sumber yang entropywise serupa dengan pengedaran sumber daya masyarakat rujukan dengan split 73:27 (73% dari sumber daya milik 27% daripada penduduk dan sebaliknya), <ref> Dalam masyarakat seperti itu, yang dipisahkan menjadi dua yang disebut "a-fractiles", indeks Hoover dan pekali Gini selalu sama. </ ref> titik di mana indeks Hoover dan indeks Theil adalah sama, berada pada nilai sekitar 46% (0,46 ) untuk indeks Hoover dan indeks Theil.
In order to increase the redundancy in the distribution category of a society as a closed system, entropy needs to be exported from the subsystem operating in the that economic category to other subsystems with other entropy categories in the society. For example, social entropy may increase. However, in the real world, societies are open systems, but the openness is restricted by the entropy exchange capabilities of the interfaces between the society and the environment of that society. For societies with a resource distribution which entropywise is similar to the resource distribution of a reference society with a 73:27 split (73% of the resources belong to 27% of the population and vice versa),<ref>In such societies, which are separated into two so called "a-fractiles", the Hoover index and the Gini coefficient always are similar.</ref> the point where the Hoover index and the Theil index are equal, is at a value of around 46% (0.46) for the Hoover index and the Theil index.
 
== RatiosNisbah ==
Lain kelas umum metrik adalah untuk mengambil nisbah pendapatan dari dua kumpulan yang berbeza, secara umum "lebih tinggi di atas lebih rendah". Ini membandingkan dua bagian''''dari pengedaran pendapatan, daripada pengedaran secara keseluruhan; kesamaan antara bahagian ini sesuai dengan 1:1, sedangkan bahagian yang lebih merata, semakin besar nisbah. Statistik ini mudah untuk menafsirkan dan berkomunikasi, kerana mereka relatif (penduduk ini menghasilkan dua kali lebih banyak penduduk ini), tetapi, kerana mereka tidak jatuh pada skala mutlak, tidak memberikan suatu ukuran mutlak dari ketimpangan.
Another common class of metrics is to take the ratio of the income of two different groups, generally "higher over lower". This compares two ''parts'' of the income distribution, rather than the distribution as a whole; equality between these parts corresponds to 1:1, while the more unequal the parts, the greater the ratio. These statistics are easy to interpret and communicate, because they are relative (this population earns twice as much as this population), but, since they do not fall on an absolute scale, do not provide an absolute measure of inequality.
 
Nisbah === === persentil
=== Ratio of percentiles ===
[[ImageGambar:. US IncomePendapatan InequalityKetimpangan 1967-2003 relativerelatif toterhadap median (logskala scalelog). svg | thumb | right | 350px |This graphJadual showsini incomemenunjukkan ofpendapatan adari givenperatusan percentagediberikan assebagai anisbah ratiountuk to medianrata-rata, foruntuk 10th10, 20th20, 50th50, 80th80, 90th90 , anddan 95th95 percentilepersentil, foruntuk 1967–20031967-2003.<br /> <br
''(50thPersentil percentile50 isadalah 1:1 byoleh definition.)'']] definisi
Terutama umum untuk membandingkan persentil diberikan kepada median, seperti dalam carta di sebelah kanan; bandingkan [[tujuh-angka ringkasan]], yang merangkumi pengedaran oleh persentil tertentu. Sementara nisbah tersebut tidak mewakili keseluruhan''''tingkat ketidaksetaraan dalam populasi secara keseluruhan, mereka menyediakan saiz bentuk''''distribusi pendapatan. Sebagai contoh, grafik dilampirkan menunjukkan bahawa pada tempoh 1967-2003, pendapatan US nisbah antara median dan persentil 10 dan 20 tidak berubah secara signifikan, sedangkan nisbah antara median, dan ke-80 ke-90, dan 95 persentil meningkat. Hal ini mencerminkan bahawa peningkatan pekali Gini dari AS di tempoh ini adalah kerana keuntungan dengan berpendapatan atas (relatif terhadap median), bukan oleh risiko kerugian berpendapatan rendah (relatif terhadap median ).<!-- Ini hanya untuk menggambarkan bagaimana seseorang dapat menafsirkan nisbah, dengan menggunakan data sejarah yang menggambarkan kestabilan dan perubahan. ->
Particularly common to compare a given percentile to the median, as in the chart at right; compare [[seven-number summary]], which summarizes a distribution by certain percentiles. While such ratios do not represent the ''overall level'' of inequality in the population as a whole, they provide measures of the ''shape'' of income distribution. For example, the attached graph shows that in the period 1967–2003, US income ratio between median and 10th and 20th percentile did not change significantly, while the ratio between the median and 80th, 90th, and 95th percentile increased. This reflects that the increase in the Gini coefficient of the US in this time period is due to gains by upper income earners (relative to the median), rather than by losses by lower income earners (relative to the median).<!-- This is just to illustrate how one may interpret these ratios, using historical data that illustrates both stability and change. -->
 
Bahagian keuntungan === ===
=== Share of income ===
[[ImageGambar:Share topBerbagi atas 1%. jpg | thumb | 300px |Share ofBahagian pre-taxpendapatan householdrumah incometangga receivedpra-cukai byyang thediterima topoleh% 1% atas, topatas 0.,1% anddan topke atas 0.01%, betweenantara 1917 anddan 2005. <ref name = "Piketty & Saez .. "> Saez, E. & Piketty, T. (2003). IncomeKetimpangan inequalitypendapatan indi theAmerika United StatesSyarikat: 1913-1998. QuarterlyTriwulan JournalJurnal of EconomicsEkonomi, 118 (1), 1-39. </ ref> {{<ref name="Saez">{{cite mengutip web | url = http://elsa.berkeley.edu/ ~ saez/TabFig2005prel.xls |. title = Saez, E. (OctoberOktober, 2007). TableJadual A1:. TopSaham fractilespendapatan incomePopular sharesfractiles (excludingtermasuk capitalkeuntungan gainsmodal) indi theAmerika U.S.Syarikat, 1913-2005. | accessdate = 2008-/01-/17}} </ ref>]]
AKelas relatedberkaitan classnisbah of ratios isadalah "incomependapatan sharesaham" –- whatberapa percentageperatus ofdaripada nationalpendapatan incomekebangsaan aakaun subpopulationsubpopulasi accounts foruntuk. TakingMengambil thejuadah rationpendapatan ofsaham incomedengan sharesaiz tosubpopulasi subpopulationsesuai sizedengan corresponds to a ratio ofnisbah laba''mean''berarti subpopulation income relativesubpopulasi torelatif terhadap''meanberarti'' incomepenghasilan. BecauseKerana incomepengedaran distributionpendapatan is generallyumumnya [[positivelypositif skewedmiring]], meanberarti islebih highertinggi thandari medianrata-rata, so ratiossehingga tonisbah meanberarti arelebih lowerrendah thandaripada ratiosnisbah tountuk median. ThisHal isini particularlyterutama useddigunakan tountuk measuremengukur thatbahawa fractionsebahagian ofkecil incomedaripada accruingpendapatan toyang topdiperolehi earnerspenerima –top - top 10%, 1%, .1%, .01% (1 indalam 10, indi 100, indi 1,0001000, indi 10,.000), anddan alsojuga "top 100" earners orpenerima theatau likesejenisnya; indi theatas US top 400 earnerspenerima isadalah .0,0002% ofdaripada earnerspenerima (2 indalam 1,000,0000) –- tountuk studymempelajari concentrationkonsentrasi ofpendapatan income –- [[wealthkondensasi condensationkekayaan]], oratau ratherlebih incometepatnya kondensasi pendapatan condensation.<ref>See theLihat work ofkarya. [http://elsa.berkeley.edu/ ~saez Saez / Emmanuel Saez], whichyang focusesberfokus onpada wealthkekayaan anddan incomependapatan konsentrasi concentration</ref /> ForSebagai examplecontoh, indalam thejadual chartdi atsebelah rightkanan, US incomependapatan sharesaham ofberpendapatan topatas earnerssekitar wasmalar approximatelydari constantpertengahan from1950-an thehingga midpertengahan 1950s to the mid 1980s1980-an, thenkemudian increasedmeningkat fromdari thepertengahan mid1980-1980san throughmelalui 2000s;tahun this2000, increasedini inequalityketidaksetaraan wasmeningkat reflectedtercermin indalam thepekali Gini coefficient.
 
ForSebagai examplecontoh, inpada tahun 2007 thedecile top decileteratas (10%) of USdaripada earnerspenerima accountedAS formenyumbang 49.,7% ofdari totaljumlah wageskeseluruhan gaji (<math> 4.,97 \approx lebih kurang 5 </ math> timeskali fractionfraksi underbawah equalitypersamaan), and the topdan 0.,01% ofatas berpendapatan US earnersdipertanggungjawabkan accounted for. 6% ofdari jumlah totalkeseluruhan wagesgaji (600 timeskali fractionfraksi underbawah equalitypersamaan). <ref> "[http://elsa.berkeley.edu/ ~ saez/saez-UStopincomes-2007.pdf Strikingmencolok ititu Richer: TheEvolusi Evolution ofPendapatan Top Incomesdi inAmerika theSyarikat] United States]", updateddikemaskini AugustOgos 2009, Emmanuel Saez, summaryringkasan ofpekerjaan workbagi formasyarakat theyang broaderlebih publicluas. </ ref>
 
==Perhitungan Spreadsheet computations ==
TheKoefisien Gini coefficient, the Hoover indexindeks anddan theindeks Theil indexserta asberkaitan well[[fungsi assosial thekesejahteraan related# [[SocialKardinal welfare function#Cardinalkesejahteraan socialsosial welfarefungsi functions|welfare functionskesejahteraan fungsi]] <ref> James E. Foster & Amartya Sen, 1997, ''OnPada EconomicKesenjangan InequalityEkonomi, expandededisi editiondiperluas with a substantial annexedengan''paviliun besar, ISBN 0-19-828193-5. ForUntuk computingmenghitung thefungsi welfare functionkesejahteraan, Sen memberi gavecontoh andengan examplemenggunakan using thepekali Gini coefficient whereassedangkan Foster useddigunakan ansuatu entropysaiz measureentropi. TheIndeks Theil indexadalah issebuah suchsaiz anentropi. entropy measure.</ref Ref> canboleh bedikira computedbersama together in adalam spreadsheet. <ref>As anSebagai alternativealternatif tountuk pengiraan spreadsheet computations also ajuga [http://www.umverteilung.de/oei/ # GiniHooverTheil Python script Python] canboleh be useddigunakan. </ref /> TheFungsi welfarekesejahteraan functionsberfungsi servesebagai asalternatif alternatives to thependapatan [[median]] income.<div class = "center"> <div
{| classClass = "wikitable"
| -
!style Style = "background: # D8E0E0;" |Group Kumpulan
!style Style = "background: # D8E0E0;" | Members <br />per pada <br />Group Kumpulan
!style Style = "background: # D8E0E0;" |Income Pendapatan <br />per pada <br />Group Kumpulan
!style Style = "background: # D8E0E0;" |Income Pendapatan <br />per pada <br />Individual Individu
!style Style = "background: # D8E0E0;" |Relative Relatif <br />Deviation Sisihan
!style Style = "background: # D8E0E0;" |Accumulated Akumulasi <br />Income Pendapatan
!style = "background: # D8E0E0;" |! Gini
!style Style = "background: # D8E0E0;" | Hoover
!style Style = "background: # D8E0E0;" | Theil
| -
!style Style = "background: # E8F0F0;" | 1
|style Style = "background: # FFFFC0;" | A <sub> 1 </ sub>
|style Style = "background: # FFFFC0;" | E <sub> 1 </ sub>
|Ē E <sub> 1 </ sub>&nbsp; =&nbsp; E <sub> 1 </ sub> / A <sub> 1 </ sub>
| D <sub> 1 </ sub>&nbsp; =&nbsp; E <sub> 1 </ sub> / ΣE&nbsp; -&nbsp; A 1 <sub>1 </ sub> / ΣA
| K <sub> 1 </ sub>&nbsp; =&nbsp; E <sub> 1 </ sub>
| G <sub> 1 </ sub>&nbsp; =&nbsp; (2 <small>&nbsp; *&nbsp; </ small> K <sub> 1 </ sub>&nbsp; -&nbsp; E <sub> 1 </ sub>) <small>&nbsp;*&nbsp; </small> / kecil A 1 <sub>1 </ sub>
| H <sub> 1 </ sub>&nbsp; =&nbsp; abs (D <sub> 1 </ sub>)
| T <sub> 1 </ sub>&nbsp; =&nbsp; ln (Ēe <sub> 1 </ sub>) <small>&nbsp; *&nbsp; </ small> D <sub> 1 </ sub>
| -
!style Style = "background: # E8F0F0;" | 2
|style Style = "background: # FFFFC0;" | A <sub> 2 </ sub>
|style Style = "background: # FFFFC0;" | E <sub> 2 </ sub>
|Ē E <sub> 2 </ sub>&nbsp;=&nbsp;E <sub> E = 2 </ sub> / A <sub> 2 </ sub>
| D <sub> 2 </ sub>&nbsp; =&nbsp;E <sub> E 2 </ sub> / ΣE&nbsp; -&nbsp; A 2 <sub>2 </ sub> / ΣA
| K <sub> 2 </ sub>&nbsp; =&nbsp; E <sub> 2 </ sub>&nbsp; +&nbsp; K <sub> 1 </ sub>
| G <sub> 2 </ sub>&nbsp; =&nbsp; (2 <small>&nbsp; *&nbsp; </ small> K <sub> 2 </ sub>&nbsp; -&nbsp; E <sub> 2 </ sub>) <small>&nbsp;*&nbsp; </small> / kecil A 2 <sub>2 </ sub>
| H <sub> 2 </ sub>&nbsp; =&nbsp; abs (D <sub> 2 </ sub>)
| T <sub> 2 </ sub>&nbsp; =&nbsp; ln (Ēe <sub> 2 </ sub>) <small>&nbsp; *&nbsp; </ small> D <sub> 2 </ sub>
| -
!style = "background: # E8F0F0;" | 3!
|style Style = "background: # FFFFC0;" | A <sub> 3 </ sub>
|style Style = "background: # FFFFC0;" | E <sub> 3 </ sub>
|Ē E <sub> 3 </ sub>&nbsp;=&nbsp;E <sub> E = 3 </ sub> / A <sub> 3 </ sub>
| D <sub> 3 </ sub>&nbsp; =&nbsp;E <sub> E 3 </ sub> / ΣE&nbsp; -&nbsp; A 3 <sub>3 </ sub> / ΣA
| K <sub> 3 </ sub>&nbsp;=&nbsp; E = <sub> 3 </ sub>&nbsp; +&nbsp; K <sub> 2 </ sub>
| G <sub> 3 </ sub>&nbsp; =&nbsp; (2 <small>&nbsp; *&nbsp; </ small> K <sub> 3 </ sub>&nbsp; -&nbsp; E <sub> 3 </ sub>) <small>&nbsp;*&nbsp; </small> / kecil A 3 <sub>3 </ sub>
| H <sub> 3 </ sub>&nbsp; =&nbsp; abs (D <sub> 3 </ sub>)
| T <sub> 3 </ sub>&nbsp; =&nbsp; ln (Ēe <sub> 3 </ sub>) <small>&nbsp; *&nbsp; </ small> D <sub> 3 </ sub>
| -
!style = "background: # E8F0F0;" |! 4
|style Style = "background: # FFFFC0;" | A <sub> 4 </ sub>
|style Style = "background: # FFFFC0;" | E <sub> 4 </ sub>
|Ē E <sub> 4 </ sub>&nbsp;=&nbsp;E <sub> E = 4 </ sub> / A <sub> 4 </ sub>
| D <sub> 4 </ sub>&nbsp; =&nbsp;E <sub> E 4 </ sub> / ΣE&nbsp; -&nbsp; A 4 <sub>4 </ sub> / ΣA
| K <sub> 4 </ sub>&nbsp; =&nbsp; E <sub> 4 </ sub>&nbsp; +&nbsp; K <sub> 3 </ sub>
| G <sub> 4 </ sub>&nbsp; =&nbsp; (2 <small>&nbsp; *&nbsp; </ small> K <sub> 4 </ sub>&nbsp; -&nbsp; E <sub> 4 </ sub>) <small>&nbsp;*&nbsp; </small> / kecil A 4 <sub>4 </ sub>
| H <sub> 4 </ sub>&nbsp; =&nbsp; abs (D <sub> 4 </ sub>)
| T <sub> 4 </ sub>&nbsp; =&nbsp; ln (Ēe <sub> 4 </ sub>) <small>&nbsp; *&nbsp; </ small> D <sub> 4 </ sub>
| - styleStyle = "background: # D8E0E0;"
|style Style = "background: # D8E0E0;" |
|style Style = "background: # D8E0E0;" |
|style Style = "background: # D8E0E0;" |
|style Style = "background: # D8E0E0;" |
|style Style = "background: # D8E0E0;" |
|style Style = "background: # D8E0E0;" |
|style Style = "background: # D8E0E0;" |
|style Style = "background: # D8E0E0;" |
|style Style = "background: # D8E0E0;" |
| -
!style = "background: # E8F0F0;" |Totals Total!
| ΣA
| ΣE
|Ē&nbsp; E =&nbsp; ΣE / ΣA
|style Style = "background: # F0F0F0;" |
|style Style = "background: # F0F0F0;" |
| ΣG
| ΣH
| ΣT
| -
!style = "background: # E8F0F0;" |Inequality! Tindakan <br />Measures Ketimpangan
|style Style = "background: # F0F0F0;" |
|style Style = "background: # F0F0F0;" |
|style Style = "background: # F0F0F0;" |
|style Style = "background: # F0F0F0;" |
|style Style = "background: # F0F0F0;" |
|style Style = "background: # D0FFD0;" | Gini&nbsp; 1 =&nbsp;1&nbsp; -&nbsp; ΣG / ΣA / ΣE
|style Style = "background: # D0FFD0;" | Hoover&nbsp; =&nbsp; ΣH&nbsp; /&nbsp; 2
|style Style = "background: # D0FFD0;" | Theil&nbsp; =&nbsp; ΣT&nbsp; /&nbsp; 2
| -
!style Style = "background: # E8F0F0;" |Welfare Kebajikan <br />Function Fungsi
|style Style = "background: # F0F0F0;" |
|style Style = "background: # F0F0F0;" |
|style Style = "background: # F0F0F0;" |
|style Style = "background: # F0F0F0;" |
|style Style = "background: # F0F0F0;" |
|style Style = "background: # D0FFD0;" |W L <sub> G </ sub>&nbsp; =&nbsp;Ē E <small>&nbsp; *&nbsp; </ small> (1&nbsp; -&nbsp; Gini)
|style Style = "background: # D0FFD0;" |W L <sub> H </ sub>&nbsp; =&nbsp;Ē E <small>&nbsp; *&nbsp; </ small> (1&nbsp; -&nbsp; Hoover)
|style Style = "background: # D0FFD0;" |W L <sub> T </ sub>&nbsp; =&nbsp;Ē E <small>&nbsp; *&nbsp; </ small> (1&nbsp; -&nbsp; Theil)
|} </div Div>
 
Dalam jadual, medan dengan latar belakang kuning digunakan untuk input data. Dari langkah-langkah ini jurang data serta fungsi kesejahteraan berkaitan dikira dan dipaparkan di bidangnya dengan latar belakang hijau.
In the table, fields with a yellow background are used for data input. From these data inequality measures as well as the related welfare functions are computed and displayed in fields with green background.
 
Dalam contoh yang diberikan di sini, "indeks Theil" singkatan mean aritmetik daripada indeks Theil dikira untuk pengedaran pendapatan dalam masyarakat ke individu (atau rumah tangga) dalam masyarakat itu dan indeks Theil dikira untuk edaran dari individu-individu ( atau rumah tangga) dalam masyarakat terhadap pendapatan masyarakat itu. Perbezaan antara indeks Theil dan indeks Hoover adalah bobot penyimpangan relatif D. Untuk indeks Hoover deviasi relatif D pada kumpulan tertimbang yang dengan tanda sendiri. Untuk indeks Theil deviasi relatif D pada kumpulan adalah pembobotan dengan saiz maklumat yang diberikan oleh pendapatan pada individu dalam kumpulan itu.
In the example given here, "Theil index" stands for the arithmetic mean of a Theil index computed for the distribution of income within a society to the individuals (or households) in that society and a Theil index computed for the distribution of the individuals (or households) in the society to the income of that society. The difference between the Theil index and the Hoover index is the weighting of the relative deviation D. For the Hoover index the relative deviation D per group is weighted with its own sign. For the Theil index the relative deviation D per group is weighted with the information size provided by the income per individual in that group.
 
Untuk perhitungan masyarakat biasanya dibagi dalam kelompok pendapatan. Seringkali ada empat atau lima kumpulan yang terdiri daripada jumlah yang sama individu dalam setiap kumpulan. Dalam kes lain kumpulan yang dibuat berdasarkan rentang pendapatan yang mengarah untuk memiliki jumlah yang berbeza dari individu dalam kelompok yang berbeza. Jadual di atas menunjukkan pengiraan indeks ketimpangan untuk empat kumpulan. Untuk setiap kumpulan jumlah individu (atau rumah tangga) pada kelompok A dan jumlah pendapatan dalam kumpulan E ditetapkan.
For the computation the society usually is divided into income groups. Often there are four or five groups consisting of a similar amount of individuals in each group. In other cases the groups are created based on income ranges which leads to having different amounts of individuals in the different groups. The table above shows a computation of inequality indices for four groups. For each group the amount of individuals (or households) per group A and the total income in that group E is specified.
 
Parameter pasangan A dan E harus diurutkan untuk pengiraan pekali Gini. (Untuk indeks Theil dan indeks Hoover penyortiran tidak diperlukan.) A dan E mempunyai harus diurutkan sehingga nilai-nilai di dalam medan "Pendapatan pada individu" yang berbaris dalam urutan.
The parameter pairs A and E need to be sorted for the computation of the Gini coefficient. (For the Theil index and the Hoover index no sorting is required.) A and E has the be sorted so that the values in the column "Income per individual" are lined up in ascending order.
 
== Tepat penggunaan metrik ketimpangan pendapatan ==
==Proper use of income inequality metrics==
# Apabila menggunakan metrik pendapatan, itu harus dibuat jelas bagaimana pendapatan harus ditakrifkan. Haruskah meliputi [[capital gain]], sewa rumah diperhitungkan dari pemilikan rumah, dan hadiah? Jika sumber pendapatan atau sumber-sumber pendapatan ini dugaan (dalam kes "[[diperhitungkan Iklan]]") akan diabaikan (kerana mereka sering kali), bagaimana mungkin bias ini analisis? Bagaimana seharusnya bekerja non-bayar (seperti rawatan anak orang tua atau yang melakukan sendiri memasak daripada menyewa koki untuk makan setiap) ditangani? Kekayaan atau pengambilan mungkin lebih langkah yang tepat dalam beberapa situasi. Yang lebih luas [[kualiti hidup]] metrik mungkin berguna.
# When using income metrics, it has to be made clear how income should be defined. Should it include [[capital gains]], imputed house rents from home ownership, and gifts? If these income sources or alleged income sources (in the case of "[[imputed rent]]") are ignored (as they often are), how might this bias the analysis? How should non-paid work (such as parental childcare or doing ones own cooking instead of hiring a chef for every meal) be handled? Wealth or consumption may be more appropriate measures in some situations. Broader [[quality of life]] metrics might be useful.
# Perbandingan saiz ketimpangan menghendaki segmentasi kumpulan berbanding (masyarakat dll) ke dalam kuintil harus serupa.
# The comparison of inequality measures requires that the segmentation of compared groups (societies etc.) into quintiles should be similar.
# Membedakan dengan betul, apakah unit asas pengukuran adalah rumah tangga atau individu. Nilai Gini rumah tangga selalu lebih rendah daripada individu kerana pendapatan penyatuan dan pemindahan intra-keluarga. Dan rumah tangga mempunyai jumlah ahli berbeza-beza. Metrik akan dipengaruhi baik ke atas atau ke bawah bergantung pada unit ukuran yang digunakan.
# Distinguish properly, whether the basic unit of measurement is households or individuals. The Gini value for households is always lower than for individuals because of income pooling and intra-family transfers. And households have a varying amount of members. The metrics will be influenced either upward or downward depending on which unit of measurement is used.
# Pertimbangkan kesan kitaran hidup. Dalam masyarakat Barat, seorang individu cenderung untuk memulakan hidup dengan pendapatan sedikit atau tidak ada, secara berperingkat meningkatkan pendapatan sampai sekitar usia 50, setelah itu pendapatan akan menurun, akhirnya menjadi negatif. Ini mempengaruhi kesimpulan yang dapat ditarik dari ketimpangan diukur. Telah dianggarkan (oleh AS Blinder dalam''The Dekomposisi''Ketimpangan, MIT tekan) bahawa 30% dari ketimpangan pendapatan yang diukur adalah kerana kepincangan suatu pengalaman individu sebagai mereka pergi melalui pelbagai tahap kehidupan.
#Consider life cycle effects. In most Western societies, an individual tends to start life with little or no income, gradually increase income till about age 50, after which incomes will decline, eventually becoming negative. This affects the conclusions which can be drawn from a measured inequality. It has been estimated (by A.S. Blinder in ''The Decomposition of Inequality'', MIT press) that 30% of measured income inequality is due to the inequality an individual experiences as they go through the various stages of life.
# Memperjelas apakah pengedaran pendapatan riil atau ukuran dasar harus digunakan. Apa kesan yang akan inflasi terhadap langkah-langkah mutlak? Lakukan beberapa kumpulan (cth., pesara) merasakan kesan inflasi lebih daripada yang lain?
#Clarify whether real or nominal income distributions should be used. What effect will inflation have on absolute measures? Do some groups (eg., pensioners) feel the effect of inflation more than others?
# Ketika pengeluaran kesimpulan dari pengukuran ketidaksetaraan, pertimbangkan bagaimana kita harus memperuntukkan keuntungan daripada perbelanjaan kerajaan? Bagaimana adanya pengaruh jaminan sosial jaring keselamatan definisi pengukuran kemiskinan mutlak? Adakah program kerajaan menyokong beberapa kumpulan pendapatan lebih dari yang lain?
#When drawing conclusion from inequality measurements, consider how we should allocate the benefits of government spending? How does the existence of a social security safety net influence the definition of absolute measures of poverty? Do government programs support some income groups more than others?
# Ketimpangan metrik mengukur ketimpangan. Mereka tidak mengukur kemungkinan penyebab kepincangan pendapatan. Beberapa penyebab dugaan meliputi: kesan kitaran hidup (usia), ciri-ciri mewarisi (IQ, bakat), kemahuan untuk mengambil risiko (risk aversion), rekreasi / pilihan kerajinan, mewarisi kekayaan, keadaan ekonomi, pendidikan dan latihan, diskriminasi, dan pasaran ketidaksempurnaan .
#Inequality metrics measure inequality. They do not measure possible causes of income inequality. Some alleged causes include: life cycle effects (age), inherited characteristics (IQ, talent), willingness to take chances (risk aversion), the leisure/industriousness choice, inherited wealth, economic circumstances, education and training, discrimination, and market imperfections.
 
Menjaga titik-titik dalam fikiran membantu untuk memahami masalah yang disebabkan oleh penggunaan yang tidak tepat saiz ketimpangan. Namun, mereka tidak menyebabkan pekali ketimpangan tidak sah. Jika langkah-langkah ketidaksetaraan dikira secara baik menjelaskan dan cara''''konsisten, mereka dapat menyediakan alat yang baik untuk perbandingan kuantitatif ketidaksetaraan.
Keeping these points in mind helps to understand the problems caused by the improper use of inequality measures. However, they do not render inequality coefficients invalid. If inequality measures are computed in a well explained and ''consistent'' way, they can provide a good tool for quantitative comparisons of inequalities.
 
== Ketimpangan, pertumbuhan, dan kemajuan ==
==Inequality, growth, and progress==
 
Ada bukti dari panel yang luas daripada kajian akademik baru-baru ini menunjukkan bahawa ada hubungan nonlinier antara ketimpangan pendapatan dan kadar pertumbuhan dan pelaburan. Sangat tinggi ketimpangan melambatkan pertumbuhan; ketimpangan sederhana menggalakkan pertumbuhan. Pengajian berbeza mengenai pengaruh ketimpangan sangat rendah.
There is evidence from a broad panel of recent academic studies shows that there is a nonlinear relation between income inequality and the rate of growth and investment. Very high inequality slows growth; moderate inequality encourages growth. Studies differ on the effect of very low inequality.
 
[[Robert J. Barro]], [[HarvardUniversiti UniversityHarvard]] foundditemui indi hisruangan studykerjanya "InequalityKesenjangan anddan GrowthPertumbuhan indalam aMajlis PanelNegara" ofbahawa Countries"ketidaksetaraan thatlebih highertinggi inequalitycenderung tendsuntuk tomenghalang retardpertumbuhan growthdi innegara-negara poormiskin countriesdan andmenggalakkan encouragepertumbuhan growthdi indaerah wellberkembang developeddengan regionsbaik. <ref> [http://www.economics.harvard.edu/faculty/barro/files/p_inequalitygrw.pdf economics.harvard.edu] - InequalityKetimpangan anddan GrowthPertumbuhan indalam aMajlis PanelNegara of Countries</ ref> <-!-- TheKalimat followingberikut sentencestampaknya seemtermasuk todi belong here butsini, maytetapi notmungkin betidak amenjadi partsebahagian ofdaripada thekajian studyini! ThisHal shouldini beharus checkeddiperiksa. --> Income inequality diminishesPendapatan growthmengurangkan potentialkepincangan throughpotensi thepertumbuhan erosionmelalui ofhakisan socialkohesi cohesionsosial, increasingmeningkatkan socialrusuhan unrestsosial anddan socialkonflik conflictsosial causingyang uncertaintymenyebabkan ofketidakpastian propertyhak rightsmilik. ketimpangan Extreme inequalityberkesan candapat effectivelymengurangkan reduceakses accesskepada tolangkah-langkah productivitypeningkatan enhancement measuresproduktiviti, or causeatau suchmenyebabkan measurestindakan totersebut beakan allocateddiperuntukkan inefficientlycekap towardterhadap thosemereka whoyang alreadysudah havememiliki, oratau cantidak nodapat longerlagi absorbmenyerap suchtindakan measurestersebut.
 
Dalam kajian mereka untuk Institut Dunia untuk Penyelidikan Ekonomi Pembangunan, [[Giovanni Andrea Cornia]] dan [[Julius Mahkamah]] (2001) mencapai kesimpulan yang sedikit berbeza. <ref> [Http: / / www.wider.unu.edu/
In their study for the World Institute for Development Economics Research, [[Giovanni Andrea Cornia]] and [[Julius Court]] (2001) reach slightly different conclusions.<ref>[http://www.wider.unu.edu/publications/policy-briefs/en_GB/pb4/_files/78807311723331954/default/pb4.pdf wider.unu.edu] - Inequality, Growth and Poverty in the Era of Liberalization and Globalization</ref> The authors therefore recommend to pursue moderation also as to the distribution of wealth and particularly to avoid the extremes. Both very high egalitarianism and very high inequality cause slow growth. Considering the inequalities in economically well developed countries, public policy should target an ‘efficient inequality range’. The authors claim that such efficiency range roughly lies between the values of the [[Gini coefficient]]s of 25 (the inequality value of a typical Northern European country) and 40 (that of countries such as the USA, France, Germany and the UK).
 
==Lihat juga==
Another researcher (W.Kitterer<ref>Wolfgang Kitterer: ''[http://www.wiso.uni-koeln.de/kitterer/Hseminar0607/Peter.pdf Mehr Wachstum durch Umverteilung?] (More Growth through Redistribution?)'', 2006</ref>) has shown that in [[perfect market]]s inequality does not influence growth.
* [[Senarai negara dengan pendapatan kesamaan]]
* [[Senarai negara mengikut pengagihan kekayaan]]
* [[Ekonomi ketidaksetaraan]]
* [[Pendapatan ketimpangan di Amerika Syarikat]]
* [[Indeks Pembangunan Manusia]]
* [[International ketidaksetaraan]]
* [[Keluk Kuznets]]
* [[Kemiskinan baris]]
* Bangsa-Bangsa Bersatu [[Millenium Development Goals]]
* [[Sosial Ekonomi]]
* "[[Orang kaya semakin kaya dan yang miskin mendapatkan] miskin]"
* [[Sosialisme]] - sistem politik atau tujuan yang didedikasikan untuk kesetaraan pendapatan
 
==Nota==
The precise shape of the inequality-growth curve obviously varies across countries depending upon their resource endowment, history, remaining levels of absolute poverty and available stock of social programs, as well as on the distribution of physical and human capital.
 
==See also==
* [[List of countries by income equality]]
* [[List of countries by distribution of wealth]]
* [[Economic inequality]]
* [[Income inequality in the United States]]
* [[Human Development Index]]
* [[International inequality]]
* [[Kuznets curve]]
* [[Poverty line]]
* United Nations [[Millennium Development Goals]]
* [[Socioeconomics]]
* "[[The rich get richer and the poor get poorer]]"
* [[Socialism]] - political system or objective dedicated to income equality
 
==Notes==
{{reflist}}
 
==LiteratureSastera==
* [[Anthony Barnes Atkinson|A.B. Atkinson]] and F. Bourguignon, ed. (2000). ''Handbook of Income Distribution'', v. 1. Elsevier.[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/handbooks/15740056 table of contents]
* _____," [[International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences]] (2001), pp.&nbsp;7265-7271. [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B7MRM-4MT09VJ-1KM&_rdoc=5&_hierId=151000138&_refWorkId=21&_explode=151000131,151000138&_fmt=summary&_orig=na&_docanchor=&_idxType=SC&view=c&_ct=12&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=31b3e7622c74542569643c1276a811ed Abstract.]
Baris 242 ⟶ 239:
* Philip B. Coulter: ''Measuring Inequality'', 1989
 
==ExternalPautan linksluar==
* Travis Hale, University of Texas Inequality Project: [http://utip.gov.utexas.edu/tutorials/theo_basic_ineq_measures.doc ''The Theoretical Basics of Popular Inequality Measures'']; online computation of examples: [http://www.poorcity.richcity.org/calculator/?quantiles=7,*18000|10,*22000|280,*25000|15,*35000|15,*40000|50,*60000|10,*75000|6,*80000|4,*120000|2,*200000|1,1000000 1A], [http://www.poorcity.richcity.org/calculator/?quantiles=12,*15000|25,*20000|1000,*30000|35,*35000|100,*45000|80,*50000|10,*60000|25,*80000|8,*175000|4,*250000|1,5000000 1B]
* Samuel Murray Matheson: [http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk3/ftp05/mq23415.pdf ''Distributive Fairness Measures for Sustainable Project Selection''], 1997
Baris 261 ⟶ 258:
 
{{DEFAULTSORT:Income Inequality Metrics}}
[[Kategori:Ekonomi ketidaksamaan]]
[[Category:Economic inequality]]
[[CategoryKategori:IndexNombor numbersindex]]
[[Kategori:Ekonomi kebajikan]]
[[Category:Welfare economics]]
[[Kategori:Pendapatan edaran]]
[[Category:Income distribution]]
 
[[de:Ungleichverteilungsmaße]]
Diambil daripada "https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matriks_ketaksamaan_pendapatan"