Astronomi India: Perbezaan antara semakan

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{{terjemah|en|Indian astronomy}}
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'''IndianAstronomi astronomyIndia'''—the earliest textual mention of—sebutan whichteks isterawal givenyang inada thewujud religiousdalam literaturekesusasteraan ofkeagamaan India (2ndalaf millenniumke-2 BCESM)—became an established—menjadi traditiontradisi bymantap thepada 1stalaf millenniumpertama BCESM, whenapabila ''[[Jyotisha|{{IAST|Jyotiṣa Vedānga}}]]'' anddan othercabang ancillarypembelajaran branchessampingan oflain learning calleddipanggil ''[[Vedanga]]s'' beganmula to take shapeterbentuk.<ref name=Sarma-Ast-Ind/> DuringSemasa theabad-abad followingberikutnya centuries a number ofbeberapa [[:CategoryKategori:IndianAhli astronomersastronomi India|Indianahli astronomersastronomi India]] studiedmengkaji variousberbagai-bagai aspectsaspek ofsains astronomical[[astronomi]] sciencesdan anddiikuti dengan [[Indian_astronomyastronomi India#Global_discoursePerbincangan sejagat|globalperbincangan discoursesejagat withdengan otherkebudayaan cultureslain]] followed.<ref name=Sarma-Ast-Ind/>
 
==Early History==
 
== Sejarah awal ==
Early astronomy in India—like in other cultures— was intertwined with religion.<ref name=Sarma-Ast-Ind>Sarma (2008), ''Astronomy in India''</ref> The first textual mention of astronomical concepts comes from the [[Veda]]s—religious literature of India.<ref name=Sarma-Ast-Ind/> According to Sarma (2008): "One finds in the [[Rigveda]] intelligent speculations about the genesis of the universe from nonexistence, the configuration of the universe, the [[Spherical Earth|spherical self-supporting earth]], and the year of 360 days divided into 12 equal parts of 30 days each with a periodical intercalary month."<ref name=Sarma-Ast-Ind/> More on Indian astronomy with relation to religion is given in the [[Indian_astronomy#Relation_with_religion|section below]].
 
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The ''[[Pancha-Siddhantika|Pañcasiddhāntikā]]'' (Varahimira, 505 CE) approximates the method for determination of the meridian direction from any three positions of the shadow using Gnomon.<ref name=abraham08/> By the time of [[Aryabhata|Aryabhata I]] the motion of planets was treated to be elliptical rather than circular.<ref name=Hayashi08Aryabhata/> Other topics included definitions of different units of time, eccentric models of planetary motion, epicyclic models of planetary motion, and planetary longitude corrections for various terrestrial locations.<ref name=Hayashi08Aryabhata/>
 
== Hubungan dengan agama ==
==Relation with religion==
 
In India astronomy and religion were interwoven during early times, beginning from the [[Vedic Period]] (2nd millennium BCE-1st millennium BCE) when the Vedas were composed.<ref name=Sarma-Ast-Ind/> Sarma (2008) notes that the Vedas are compositions of religion, and not science.<ref name=Sarma-Ast-Ind/> However, they do hold a certain amount of astronomical information.<ref name=Sarma-Ast-Ind/> The religious texts of India often contained astronomical observation for carrying out ritual associated with religion at a certain time.<ref name=Sarma-Ast-Ind/> Sarma (2008) comments on one such text:
 
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Hindus kept a [[panchanga|pañcānga]] for calculations of ''[[tithi]]'' (lunar day), vāra (weekday), [[nakshatra|naksatra]] (asterism), and ''karan'' (half lunar day) for social and religious events.<ref name=Sarma-Ast-Ind/> Klostermaier (2003) states that: "Indian astronomers calculated the duration of one ''[[Kalpa (time unit)|kalpa]]'' (a cycle of the universe during which all the heavenly bodies return to their original positions) to be 4,320,000,000 years."<ref name=Klostermaier03>Klostermaier (2003)</ref>
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==Calendars Kalendar ==
{{See|Hindukalendar calendarHindu}}
 
The divisions of the year were on the basis of religious rites and seasons (''[[Rtu]]'').<ref name=van_Buitenen08>J.A.B. van Buitenen (2008)</ref> The duration from mid [[March]]—Mid [[May]] was taken to be spring (''vasanta''), mid May—mid July: summer ("grishma"), mid July—mid [[September]]: rains (''varsha''), mid September—mid [[November]]: autumn, mid November—mid [[January]]: winter, mid January—mid March: ''dew'' (''[[Shishir|śiśira]]'').<ref name=van_Buitenen08/>
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{{Quotation2|The oldest system, in many respects the basis of the classical one, is known from texts of about 1000 BC. It divides an approximate solar year of 360 days into 12 lunar months of 27 (according to the early Vedic text {{IAST|Taittirīya Saṃhitā}} 4.4.10.1–3) or 28 (according to the ''[[Atharvaveda]]'', the fourth of the Vedas, 19.7.1.) days. The resulting discrepancy was resolved by the intercalation of a leap month every 60 months. Time was reckoned by the position marked off in constellations on the ecliptic in which the Moon rises daily in the course of one lunation (the period from [[New Moon]] to New Moon) and the Sun rises monthly in the course of one year. These [[constellations]] ({{IAST|nakṣatra}}) each measure an arc of 13° 20′ of the ecliptic circle. The positions of the Moon were directly observable, and those of the Sun inferred from the Moon's position at Full Moon, when the Sun is on the opposite side of the Moon. The position of the Sun at midnight was calculated from the {{IAST|nakṣatra}} that culminated on the meridian at that time, the Sun then being in opposition to that {{IAST|nakṣatra}}.<ref name=van_Buitenen08/>}}
 
== Ahli astronomi ==
==Astronomers==
 
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== Alat digunakan ==
==Instruments used==
[[File:Jantar Mantar at Jaipur.jpg|thumb|thumb|right|[[Jai Singh II|Sawai Jai Singh]] (1688–1743 CE) initiated the construction of several observatories. Shown here is the [[Jantar Mantar (Jaipur)]] observatory.]]
[[File:Jantar Delhi.jpg|thumb|right|[[Yantra Mandir]] (completed by 1743 CE), [[Delhi]].]]
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The [[Seamlessness|seamless]] [[celestial globe]] invented in [[Mughal India]], specifically [[Lahore]] and [[Kashmir]], is considered to be one of the most impressive astronomical instruments and remarkable feats in [[metallurgy]] and [[engineering]]. All [[globe]]s before and after this were seamed, and in the 20th century, it was believed by metallurgists to be technically impossible to create a metal globe without any [[wiktionary:seam|seams]], even with modern technology. It was in the 1980s, however, that Emilie Savage-Smith discovered several celestial globes without any seams in Lahore and Kashmir. The earliest was invented in Kashmir by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in 998 AH (1589-90 CE) during [[Akbar the Great]]'s reign; another was produced in 1070 AH (1659-60 CE) by Muhammad Salih Tahtawi with Arabic and Sanskrit inscriptions; and the last was produced in Lahore by a Hindu metallurgist Lala Balhumal Lahuri in 1842 during [[Jagatjit Singh Bahadur]]'s reign. 21 such globes were produced, and these remain the only examples of seamless metal globes. These Mughal metallurgists developed the method of [[lost-wax casting]] in order to produce these globes.<ref>Savage-Smith (1985)</ref>
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== Perbincangan sejagat ==
==Global discourse==
 
Indian astronomy reached [[China]] with the expansion of Buddhism during the [[Later Han Dynasty (Five Dynasties)|Later Han dynasty]] (25–220 CE).<ref name=OhashiChina/> Further translation of Indian works on astronomy was completed in China by the [[Three Kingdoms|Three Kingdoms era]] (220–265 CE).<ref name=OhashiChina>See Ōhashi (2008) in ''Astronomy: Indian Astronomy in China''.</ref> However, the most detailed incorporation of Indian astronomy occurred only during the Tang Dynasty (618-907) when a number of Chinese scholars—such as [[Yi Xing]]— were versed both in Indian and [[Chinese astronomy]].<ref name=OhashiChina/> A system of Indian astronomy was recorded in China as ''Jiuzhi-li'' (718 CE), the author of which was an Indian by the name of [[Gautama Siddha|Qutan Xida]]—a translation of Devanagari Gotama Siddha—the director of the [[Tang dynasty]]'s national astronomical observatory.<ref name=OhashiChina/>
 
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Later in the early 18th century, [[Jai Singh II of Amber]] invited European [[Jesuit]] astronomers to one of his [[Yantra Mandir]] observatories, who had bought back the astronomical tables compiled by [[Philippe de La Hire]] in 1702. After examining La Hire's work, Jai Singh concluded that the observational techniques and instruments used in European astronomy were inferior to those used in India at the time. It is uncertain whether he was aware of the [[Copernican Revolution]] via the Jesuits.<ref>Baber, 89-90</ref>
 
== SeeLihat alsojuga ==
 
*[[History of astronomy]]
*[[Chinese astronomy]]
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*[[Hindu chronology]]
 
==Notes Nota ==
 
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==References Rujukan ==
 
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