Perkauman saintifik

Perkauman saintifik adalah penggunaan teknik dan hipotesis sains untuk membenarkan kepercayaan dalam keunggulan kaum atau perkauman.^[1]

Ini tidak sama dengan menggunakan penemuan sains dan kaedah saintifik untuk menyiasat perbezaan antara manusia dan berhujah bahawa terdapat kaum. Dalam pengelasan biologi perbezaan antara kumpulan-kumpulan haiwan yang disiasat tidak semestinya mendakwa bahawa satu kumpulan adalah lebih baik kepada orang lain. Perkauman atau ketuanan kaum tuntutan tambahan bahawa sebahagian bangsa adalah lebih baik daripada kaum-kaum lain.

Walau bagaimanapun, perkauman saintifik sering digunakan dengan lebih sempit sebagai sinonim untuk teori-teori kontemporari dan sejarah yang menggaji antropologi (terutamanya antropologi fizikal), anthropometry, pengukuran tengkorak, dan disiplin lain merekakan anthropologic tipologi menyokong klasifikasi populasi manusia kepada kaum fizikal diskret manusia yang mendakwa mereka lebih hebat atau lebih rendah, khususnya di konteks sejarah sekitar tahun 1880-1930. Perkauman saintifik itu, yang paling biasa semasa zaman Imperialisme Baru (sekitar tahun 1880-1914), pada separuh kedua abad ke-19, dan digunakan dalam mewajarkan putih Eropah imperialisme.

Selepas berakhirnya Perang Dunia Kedua (1939-1945) dan berlakunya Holokus, perkauman saintifik dalam teori dan tindakan secara rasminya mengecam, terutamanya di kenyataan anti-perkauman "The Race Question" (1950) UNESCO: "Hakikat biologi bangsa dan mitos 'bangsa' perlu dibezakan Untuk 'bangsa' semua tujuan praktikal sosial tidak begitu fenomena biologi sebagai mitos sosial. Mitos 'bangsa' telah mencipta sangat banyak kerosakan manusia dan sosial. dalam tahun-tahun kebelakangan ini, ia telah mengambil tol yang berat dalam kehidupan manusia, dan menyebabkan penderitaan yang tidak terperi. "Walau bagaimanapun, kenyataan mengakui bahawa bangsa-bangsa manusia yang berbeza wujud.^[2] Bermula pada akhir abad ke-20, perkauman saintifik telah dikritik sebagai usang, dan sejarah digunakan untuk menyokong atau mengesahkan pandangan dunia perkauman, berdasarkan kepercayaan kepada kewujudan dan kepentingan kategori kaum dan hierarki ungguldan bangsa-bangsa yang lebih rendah.^[3]

Istilah "perkauman saintifik" adalah memburukkan seperti digunakan untuk teori-teori kontemporari, seperti di dalam The Curve Bell (1994), mendakwa bahawa bukti saintifik menunjukkan ketara evolusi ary perbezaan antarabangsa-bangsa manusia dan kumpulan etnik. Pengkritik berhujah bahawa kerja-kerja itu adalah didorong oleh anggapan perkauman yang tidak disokong oleh bukti-bukti yang ada. Penerbitan seperti Mankind Quarterly, Suku Tahunan diasaskan sebagai 1 jelas "bangsa yang mementingkan" penerbitan, telah dituduh perkauman saintifik kerana menyiarkan artikel mengenai tafsiran kontroversi evolusi manusia, kecerdasan, etnografi, bahasa, mitos, arkeologi, dan bangsa mata pelajaran.^[4] Label yg menghinakan, "perkauman saintifik", mengkritik kajian yang mendakwa untuk mewujudkan sambungan antara, misalnya, bangsa dan kecerdasan, dan berhujah bahawa ini menggalakkan pendapat bangsa-bangsa "lebih atas" dan "lebih rendah" manusia.^[5] Pengarang terkini menganggap kerja mereka untuk sains dan penggunaan pertikaian "perkauman", mereka mungkin lebih suka seperti "bangsa realisme" atau "perkauman".

Lihat jugaSunting

Eugenik

RujukanSunting

^ "Ostensibly scientific": cf. Adam Kuper, Jessica Kuper (eds.), The social science encyclopedia (1996), "Racism", p. 716: "This [sc. scientific] racism entailed the use of 'scientific techniques', to sanction the belief in European and American racial superiority"; Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Questions to sociobiology (1998), "Race, theories of", p. 18: "Its exponents [sc. of scientific racism] tended to equate race with species and claimed that it constituted a scientific explanation of human history"; Terry Jay Ellingson, The myth of the noble savage (2001), 147ff. "In scientific racism, the racism was never very scientific; nor, it could at least be argued, was whatever met the qualifications of actual science ever very racist" (p. 151); Paul A. Erickson,Liam D. Murphy, A History of Anthropological Theory (2008), p. 152: "Scientific racism: Improper or incorrect science that actively or passively supports racism".
^ UNESCO, The Race Question, p. 8
^ Cf. Patricia Hill Collins, Black feminist thought: knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment (2nd ed., 2000), Glossary, p. 300: "Scientific racism was designed to prove the inferiority of people of color"; Simon During, Cultural studies: a critical introduction (2005), p. 163: "It [sc. scientific racism] became such a powerful idea because ... it helped legitimate the domination of the globe by whites"; David Brown and Clive Webb, Race in the American South: From Slavery to Civil Rights (2007), p. 75: "...the idea of a hierarchy of races was driven by an influential, secular, scientific discourse in the second half of the eighteenth century and was rapidly disseminated during the nineteenth century".
^ Genoves, S. (1961). "Racism and “the mankind quarterly”", Science, 134, 1928-1930, 1932.
^ Tucker, William H. (2007). The funding of Scientific Racism: Wickliffe Draper and the Pioneer Fund. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-07463-9. Parameter |laysummary= yang tidak diketahui diendahkan (bantuan)

BibliografiSunting

Asseo, Henriette. 1997. The Gypsies During the Second World War, Vol. 1: From Race Science to the Camps. University of Hertfordshire Press. ISBN 0-900458-78-X
Barkan, Elazar. 1992. The Retreat of Scientific Racism: Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States between the World Wars. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Biddiss, Michael D. 1970. Father of Racist Ideology: The Social and Political Thought of Count Gobineau. New York: Weybright and Talley.
Dennis, Rutledge M. 1995. "Social Darwinism, scientific racism, and the metaphysics of race". Journal of Negro Education 64:243–52. Accessed 21 October 2007.
Detterman, Douglas K. 2006. "Intelligence." Microsoft Student 2007 DVD. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation.
Efron, John M. 1995. Defenders of the Race: Jewish Doctors and Race Science in Fin-de-siècle Europe. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-05440-8
Ehrenreich, Eric. 2007. The Nazi Ancestral Proof: Genealogy, Racial Science, and the Final Solution. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-1-58322-776-3
Ewen, Stuart and Elizabeth. 2008. Typecasting: On the Arts and Sciences of Human Inequality. New York, NY: Seven Stories Press. ISBN 978-0-253-34945-3
Gould, Stephen Jay. 1981. The Mismeasure of Man. New York: Norton.
Gross, Paul R., and Levitt, Norman. 1994. Higher Superstition: The Academic Left and Its Quarrels With Science. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-4766-4
Higgins, A.C. n.d. "Scientific Racism: A Review of The Science and Politics of Racial Research by William H. Tucker". Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1994. Accessed 21 October 2007.
Isaac, Benjamin. 2004. The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press
Mintz, Frank P. 1985. The Liberty Lobby and the American Right: Race, Conspiracy, and Culture. Westport, CT: Greenwood.
Kühl, Stefan. 1994. The Nazi Connection: Eugenics, American Racism, and German National Socialism. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Lombardo, Paul A. 2002. "‘The American Breed’: Nazi Eugenics and the Origins of the Pioneer Fund." Albany Law Review 65:743–830.
Murray, Charles. 2005. "The Inequality Taboo". Commentary Magazine, September.
Poliakov, Leon. 1974. Aryan Myth: A History of Racist and Nationalist Ideas in Europe. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Proctor, Robert N. 1988. Racial Hygiene: Medicine under the Nazis. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Sapp, January 1987. Beyond the Gene: Cytoplasmic Inheritance and the Struggle for Authority in Genetics. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504206-9
Schaffer, Gavin. 2007. " 'Scientific' Racism Again?": Reginald Gates, the Mankind Quarterly and the question of "race" in science after the Second World War', Journal of American Studies, 41:2, 253–278.
Taguieff, Pierre-André. 1987. La Force du préjugé. Essai sur le racisme et ses doubles. Paris: Gallimard, La Découverte. ISBN 2-07-071977-4 (Perancis)
Tucker, William. 2002. The Funding of Scientific Racism: Wickliffe Draper and the Pioneer Fund. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.
UNESCO. 1950. The Race Question.
Gould, S.J. (1981). The mismeasure of man. New York: Norton.
Jackson, J. (2004). Racially stuffed shirts and other enemies of mankind: Horace Mann Bond’s parody of segregationist psychology in the 1950’s. In A. Winston (Ed.), Defining difference: Race and racism in the history of psychology (pp.261-283). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Neisser, U., Boodoo, G., Bouchard, T.J.,Jr., Boykin, A.W., Brody, N., Ceci, S.J., Halpern, D.F., Loehlin, J.C., Perloff, R., *Sternberg, R.J., & Urbina, S. (1996). Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns. American Psychologist, 51, 77-101.
Richards, G. (1997). “Race,” racism, and psychology: Towards a reflexive history. New York: Routledge.
Shultz, D.P., & Shultz, S.E. (2008). A History of Modern Psychology 9th ed. Belmont, CA: Thomson Higher Education.
Tucker, W. H. (1994). The science and politics of racial research. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.

Bacaan lebih lanjutSunting

Spiro, Jonathan P. (2009). Defending the Master Race: Conservation, Eugenics, and the Legacy of Madison Grant. Univ. of Vermont Press. ISBN 978-1-58465-715-6. Parameter |laysummary= yang tidak diketahui diendahkan (bantuan)

Pautan luarSunting

Institute for the Study of Academic Racism, Ferris State University (Michigan, USA) maintained by Barry Mehler
Links to scholarly websites about "race science" by Nizkor Project
The Problem of Human Diversity in the European Cultural Experience of the Eighteenth Century (Trieste, 14–15 February 2002)
The Mis-portrayal of Darwin as a Racist — Refutes claims that Darwin was a racist or that his views inspired the Nazis
Brain Size and Intelligence
Reviews of Race: The Reality of Human Differences
RaceSci.org: History of Race in Science
Gardner, Dan. Race Science: When Racial Categories Make No Sense. The Globe and Mail, October 27, 1995.
Institute for the study of academic racism (ISAR)
Race, Science, and Social Policy. From Race: The Power of an Illusion. PBS.
Arthur Hu's Index of Diversity
Kenan Malik discusses race and intelligence

[1] "Ostensibly scientific": cf. Adam Kuper, Jessica Kuper (eds.), The social science encyclopedia (1996), "Racism", p. 716: "This [sc. scientific] racism entailed the use of 'scientific techniques', to sanction the belief in European and American racial superiority"; Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Questions to sociobiology (1998), "Race, theories of", p. 18: "Its exponents [sc. of scientific racism] tended to equate race with species and claimed that it constituted a scientific explanation of human history"; Terry Jay Ellingson, The myth of the noble savage (2001), 147ff. "In scientific racism, the racism was never very scientific; nor, it could at least be argued, was whatever met the qualifications of actual science ever very racist" (p. 151); Paul A. Erickson,Liam D. Murphy, A History of Anthropological Theory (2008), p. 152: "Scientific racism: Improper or incorrect science that actively or passively supports racism".

[2] UNESCO, The Race Question, p. 8

[3] Cf. Patricia Hill Collins, Black feminist thought: knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment (2nd ed., 2000), Glossary, p. 300: "Scientific racism was designed to prove the inferiority of people of color"; Simon During, Cultural studies: a critical introduction (2005), p. 163: "It [sc. scientific racism] became such a powerful idea because ... it helped legitimate the domination of the globe by whites"; David Brown and Clive Webb, Race in the American South: From Slavery to Civil Rights (2007), p. 75: "...the idea of a hierarchy of races was driven by an influential, secular, scientific discourse in the second half of the eighteenth century and was rapidly disseminated during the nineteenth century".

[4] Genoves, S. (1961). "Racism and “the mankind quarterly”", Science, 134, 1928-1930, 1932.

[5] Tucker, William H. (2007). The funding of Scientific Racism: Wickliffe Draper and the Pioneer Fund. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-07463-9. Parameter |laysummary= yang tidak diketahui diendahkan (bantuan)

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]