Sejarah populasi orang asli Amerika

Angka populasi orang asli di benua Amerika sebelum pelayaran Sepanyol 1492 oleh Christopher Columbus terbukti sukar untuk dipastikan. Para cendekiawan bergantung kepada data arkeologi dan rekod bertulis daripada peneroka Eropah. Kebanyakan cendekiawan menulis pada hujung abad ke-19 menganggarkan bahawa populasi pra-Columbus merupakan serendah 10 juta orang; menjeland akhir abad ke-20 kebanyakan cendekiawan bertumpu kepada anggara tengah sekitar 50 juta orang, dengan beberapa sejarawan berhujah anggaran 100 juta orang atau lebih.^[1] Hubungan dengan orang Eropah menyebabkan penjajahan Eropah di Amerika, di mana berjuta-juta pendatang dari Eropah eventually settled di kedua-dua benua Amerika.

Populasi orang Afrika dan Eurasia di benua Amerika semakin berkembang, manakala populasi orang asli merosot. Penyakit Eurasia seperti influenza, wabak pneumonia, dan cacar membinasakan Orang Asli Amerika, yang tidak mempunyai keimunan pada mereka. Konflik dan perang nyata dengan pendatang baru Eropah Barat dan suku Amerika yang lain mengurangkan populasi dengan lebih lanjut dan mengganggu masyarakat tradisional. Takat dan punca penurunan telah lama menjadi perkara bahas akademik, bersama dengan ciri-cirinya sebagai suatu pembasmian kaum.^[2]

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Nota sunting

^ Taylor, Alan (2002). American colonies; Volume 1 of The Penguin history of the United States, History of the United States Series. Penguin. m/s. 40. ISBN 9780142002100. Dicapai pada 7 October 2013.
^ David E. Stannard (1993-11-18). American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World. Oxford University Press, USA. m/s. 146. ISBN 978-0-19-508557-0.

Bibliografi sunting

Buku

Cappel, Constance (2007). The smallpox genocide of the Odawa tribe at L'Arbre Croche, 1763: the history of a Native American people. Edwin Mellen Press. ISBN 978-0-7734-5220-6.
Cook, Noble David (1998). Born to Die: Disease and New World Conquest, 1492–1650. ISBN 978-0-521-62208-0.
Hanson, Victor Davis (2002-08-27). Carnage and culture: landmark battles in the rise of Western power. Anchor Books. ISBN 978-0-385-50052-4.
Henige, David P. (1998). Numbers from Nowhere: The American Indian Contact Population Debate. Norman : University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-3044-6.
Jennings, Francis (1993). The Founders of America: How Indians discovered the land, pioneered in it, and created great classical civilizations, how they were plunged into a Dark Age by invasion and conquest, and how they are reviving. New York: Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-03373-1.
Mann, Charles C. (2005-08-09). 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus. Knopf. ISBN 9781400040063.
Ramenofsky, Ann (1988). Vectors of Death: The Archaeology of European Contact. Albuquerque, New Mexico: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 978-0-8263-0997-6.
Reséndez, Andrés (2016). The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0547640983.
Royal, Robert. 1492 and All That: Political Manipulations of History. Washington, D.C.: Ethics and Public Policy Center, 1992.
Shoemaker, Nancy (1999). American Indian population recovery in the twentieth century. University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 978-0-8263-1919-7.
Stannard, David E. (1993-11-18). American Holocaust:The Conquest of the New World. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0-19-508557-0.
Stearn, E. Wagner and Allen E. Stearn. The Effect of Smallpox on the Destiny of the Amerindian. Boston: Humphries, 1945.
Thornton, Russel (1987). American Indian Holocaust and Survival: ˜a Œpopulation History Since 1492. Norman : University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-2074-4.

Sumber dalam talian

Lewy, Guenter. "Were American Indians the Victims of Genocide?", History News Network, originally published in Commentary.
Lord, Lewis. "How many people were here before Columbus?". Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 2006-09-22. Dicapai pada 2020-05-14.CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link), 10 August 1997.
Rummel, R.J. Death by Government, Chapter 3: Pre-Twentieth Century Democide
Stutz, Bruce. Megadeath in Mexico Discover, 21 February 2006.
White, Matthew. "The Annihilation of the Native Americans". Amateur website, but reports data from scholarly sources.
Jeffrey Amherst and Smallpox Blankets "Lord Jeffrey Amherst's letters discussing germ warfare against American Indians" Retrieved February 2007

Bacaan lanjut sunting

Alchon, Suzanne Austin (2003). A Pest in the Land. University of New Mexico Press.
Cameron, Catherine M., Paul Kelton, and Alan C. Swedlund (eds.) (2015). Beyond Germs: Native Depopulation in North America. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press.
Cappel, Constance (2007). The smallpox genocide of the Odawa tribe at L'Arbre Croche, 1763: the history of a Native American people. Edwin Mellen Press. ISBN 978-0-7734-5220-6.
Fagan, Brian M. (2005-05-20). Ancient North America: The Archaeology of a Continent. ISBN 978-0-500-28532-9.
Mann, Charles C. (2005-08-09). 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus. Knopf. ISBN 9781400040063.
McNeill, William Hardy (1998). Plagues and peoples. Anchor. ISBN 978-0-385-12122-4.
Sletcher, Michael 'North American Indians', in Will Kaufman and Heidi Macpherson, eds., Britain and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History, (2 vols., Oxford, 2005).

Pautan luar sunting

[1] Taylor, Alan (2002). American colonies; Volume 1 of The Penguin history of the United States, History of the United States Series. Penguin. m/s. 40. ISBN 9780142002100. Dicapai pada 7 October 2013.

[2] David E. Stannard (1993-11-18). American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World. Oxford University Press, USA. m/s. 146. ISBN 978-0-19-508557-0.

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