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Pemburu-pengumpul: Perbezaan antara semakan

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===Habitat dan kependudukan===
Masyarakat pemburu-pengumpul cenderung berpindah-randah kerana mereka amat bergantung pada keupayaan persekitaran alam tertentu untuk menyediakan sumber yang mencukupi untuk menampung kependudukan merkea dan perubahan keadaan sumber-sumber tersebut yang dipengaruhi oleh keadaan iklim dan musim setempat. Sesebuah [[masyarakat kelompok]] biasanya kecil bilangan ahlinya (10-30 orang), namun semua masyarakat kelompok bergabung secara bermusim atau sementara waktu untuk membentuk sebuah kumpulan besar (100 atau lebih) apabila sumber berkenaan amat banyak. Di beberapa tempat di mana persekitarannya amat berdaya keluaran, seperti di pantai Barat Laut Pasifik (Amerika Utara) atau Jepun zaman Jomon, pemburu-pengumpul mampu mendirikan petempatan kekal.
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Petempatan pemburu-pengumpul Hunter-gatherer settlements may be either permanent, temporary, or some combination of the two, depending upon the mobility of the community. Mobile communities typically construct shelters using impermanent building materials, or they may use natural rock shelters, where they are available.
 
Petempatan pemburu-pengumpul baik kekal mahupun sementara, atau kedua-duanya, bergantung pada kecenderungan berpindah-randah. Masyarakat berpindah-randah lazimnya membina tempat berlindung dengan menggunakan bahan binaan yang tidak kekal, atau menggunakan teduhan batuan semulajadi jika ada.
===Social and economic structure===
Hunter-gatherer societies also tend to have relatively non-[[Social hierarchy|hierarchical]], [[egalitarian]] social structures. This might have been more pronounced in the more mobile societies, which generally are not able to store surplus food.
Thus, full-time leaders, bureaucrats, or artisans are rarely supported by these societies.<ref name=gawdy>{{cite book |title=Limited Wants, Unlimited Means: A reader on Hunter-Gatherer Economics and the Environment |author=John Gowdy |year=1998 |publisher=Island Press |location=St Louis |isbn=155963555X |pages=342 }}</ref><ref name="Dahlberg">{{cite book |author=Dahlberg, Frances. |url=http://books.google.com/?id=eTPULzP1MZAC&pg=PA120&dq=Gathering+and+Hominid+Adaptation |title=Woman the Gatherer |location=London |publisher=Yale university press |year=1975 |isbn=0-30-02989-6}}</ref><ref>Erdal, D. & Whiten, A. (1996) "Egalitarianism and Machiavellian Intelligence in Human Evolution" in Mellars, P. & Gibson, K. (eds) Modelling the Early Human Mind. Cambridge MacDonald Monograph Series </ref> In addition to social and economic equality in hunter-gatherer societies there is often, though not always, sexual [[Wikt:parity|parity]] as well.<ref name=Kiefer>{{cite web|url=http://www.suluarchipelago.com/E20Website2002/default.htm|title=Anthropology E-20|accessdate=2008-03-11 |author=Thomas M. Kiefer |date=Spring 2002 |work=Lecture 8 Subsistence, Ecology and Food production|publisher=Harvard University}}</ref><ref name=gawdy>{{cite book |title=Limited Wants, Unlimited Means: A reader on Hunter-Gatherer Economics and the Environment |author=Johm Gowdy|authorlink=http://www.rpi.edu/~gowdyj/ |year=1998 |publisher=Island Press |location=St Louis |isbn=155963555X |pages=342 }}</ref> Hunter-gatherers are often grouped together based on [[kinship]] and [[Band society|band]] (or [[tribe]]) membership.<ref name=Kiefer/>▼
 
===Struktur ekonomi dan sosial===
Others, such as the [[Haida]] of present-day [[British Columbia]], lived in such a rich environment that they could remain sedentary, like many other [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]]s of the Pacific Northwest coast.
Masyarakat pemburu-pengumpul juga cenderung mengamalkan struktur sosial yang agak [[egalitarianisme|egalitarian]], tanpa [[Hierarki sosial|hierarki]], terutamanya dalam masyarakat yang lebih berpindah-randah yang amnua tidak mampu menyimpan makanan tambahan.
These groups demonstrate more [[social stratification|hierarchical social organization]].
▲ThusJusteru, full-timepemimpin leaderssepenuh masa, bureaucratsgolongan birokrat, oratau artisansartisan arejarang rarelysekali supportedditampung byoleh thesemasyarakat societiessedemikian.<ref name=gawdy>{{cite book |title=Limited Wants, Unlimited Means: A reader on Hunter-Gatherer Economics and the Environment |author=John Gowdy |year=1998 |publisher=Island Press |location=St Louis |isbn=155963555X |pages=342 }}</ref><ref name="Dahlberg">{{cite book |author=Dahlberg, Frances. |url=http://books.google.com/?id=eTPULzP1MZAC&pg=PA120&dq=Gathering+and+Hominid+Adaptation |title=Woman the Gatherer |location=London |publisher=Yale university press |year=1975 |isbn=0-30-02989-6}}</ref><ref>Erdal, D. & Whiten, A. (1996) "Egalitarianism and Machiavellian Intelligence in Human Evolution" in Mellars, P. & Gibson, K. (eds) Modelling the Early Human Mind. Cambridge MacDonald Monograph Series </ref> InSelain additionkesamarataan tososial socialdan andekonomi, economicmasyarakat equality in hunterpemburu-gathererpengumpul societiesjuga theresering is often, though not always, sexual [[Wikt:parity|parity]]mengamalkan askesamaan wellseks.<ref name=Kiefer>{{cite web|url=http://www.suluarchipelago.com/E20Website2002/default.htm|title=Anthropology E-20|accessdate=2008-03-11 |author=Thomas M. Kiefer |date=Spring 2002 |work=Lecture 8 Subsistence, Ecology and Food production|publisher=Harvard University}}</ref><ref name=gawdy>{{cite book |title=Limited Wants, Unlimited Means: A reader on Hunter-Gatherer Economics and the Environment |author=Johm Gowdy|authorlink=http://www.rpi.edu/~gowdyj/ |year=1998 |publisher=Island Press |location=St Louis |isbn=155963555X |pages=342 }}</ref> HunterPemburu-gathererspengumpul areberkelompok oftenmengikut groupedhubungan togetherkekeluargaan baseddan onkeanggotaan [[kinshippuak]] and [[Band society|band]] (or [[tribe]]) membership.<ref name=Kiefer/>
 
Masyarakat pemburu-pengumpul [[orang asli Amerika|pribumi Amerika]] di pantai Barat Laut Pasifik, seperti kaum [[Haida]] di tanah [[British Columbia]], pernah tinggal dalam persekitaran yang begitu kaya sehingga mereka tidak perlu berpindah-randah. Kelompok sebegini menunjukkan [[susun lapis sosial|susunan sosial berhierarki]] yang lebih ketara.
Violence in hunter-gatherer societies is usually caused by grudges and vendettas rather than for territory or economic benefit.<ref name=Kiefer/>
 
Keganasan dalam masyarakat pemburu-pengumpul biasanya tercetus akibat sikap berdendam dan berseteru, dan jarang sekali kerana merebut wilayah atau manfaat ekonomi.<ref name=Kiefer/>
A vast amount of ethnographic and archaeological evidence demonstrates that the sexual [[division of labor]] in which men hunt and women gather wild fruits and vegetables is an extremely common phenomenon among hunter-gatherers worldwide, but there are a few number of documented exceptions to this general pattern. A study done on the [[Aeta]] people of the [[Philippines]] states: "About 85% of Philippine Aeta women hunt, and they hunt the same
 
quarry as men. Aeta women hunt in groups and with dogs, and have a 31%
Sejumlah besar bukti etnografi dan arkeologi menunjukkan bahawa [[pembahagian kerja]] mengikut jantina, iaitu lelaki berburu dan wanita mengumpul buah-buahan dan sayur-sayuran liar adalah kebiasaan sekali di kalangan masyarakat pemburu-pengumpul sedunia, dengan sedikit pengecualian yang didokumenkan. Mengikut kajian terhadap orang [[Aeta]] di [[Filipina]]: "Kira-kira 85% wanita Aeta di Filipina memburu, dan buruan mereka sama dengan buruan lelaki. Wanita Aeta berburu secara berkumpulan bersama anjing, dan mencapai kadar kejayaan 31%
success rate as opposed to 17% for men. Their rates are even better when they
theberbanding 17% untuk lelaki. Kadar tersebut meningkat apabila wanita berganding bahu dengan lelaki, iaitu kumpulan pemburu campuran mencapai kadar kejayaan 41% di kalangan kaum Aeta."<ref name="Dahlberg">{{cite book |author=Dahlberg, Frances. |title=Woman the Gatherer |location=London |publisher=Yale university press |year=1975 |isbn=0-30-02989-6}}</ref> ItJuga wasdidapati alsodi foundkalangan among thekaum [[Ju'/hoansi]] people ofdi [[Namibia]] thatbahawa womenkaum helpedwanita themembantu menlelaki duringdalam huntingpemburuan bydengan helping them [[Tracking (hunting)|track]]membantu downmenjejaki quarryburuan.<ref name="biesele and barclay">{{Cite journal▼
combine forces with men: mixed hunting groups have a full 41% success rate among
▲the Aeta."<ref name="Dahlberg">{{cite book |author=Dahlberg, Frances. |title=Woman the Gatherer |location=London |publisher=Yale university press |year=1975 |isbn=0-30-02989-6}}</ref> It was also found among the [[Ju'/hoansi]] people of Namibia that women helped the men during hunting by helping them [[Tracking (hunting)|track]] down quarry.<ref name="biesele and barclay">{{Cite journal
| first1 = Megan
| last1 = Biesele
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|date=March 2001
| postscript = }}</ref>
MoreoverLebih-lebih lagi, recenthasil archaeologicalpenyelidikan researcharkeologi doneterkini byoleh theahli anthropologistantropologi anddan archaeologistarekologi, Steven Kuhn fromdari the University ofUniversiti Arizona, suggestsmenunjukkan thatbahawa thepembahagian sexualkerja divisionmengikut ofjantian labortidak didwujud not exist prior to thesebelum [[UpperZaman PaleolithicPaleolitik Akhir]], andsebaliknya developedberkembang relativelyagak recentlylewat indalam humansejarah historymanusia. ThePembahagian sexualkerja divisionmengikut ofjantina labormungkin maytimbul haveuntuk arisenmembolehkan tomanusia allowmemperoleh humans to acquiremakanan fooddan andsumber otherlain resourcesdengan morelebih efficientlycekap.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/12/061207-sex-humans.html |title=Sex-Based Roles Gave Modern Humans an Edge, Study Says |work=National Geographic News |author=Stefan Lovgren |accessdate=2008-02-03 }}</ref> ItOleh woulditu, therefore,untuk bemenyatakan anbahawa over-generalizationlelaki tosentiasa sayberburu thatdan menwanita alwayssentiasa huntmengumpul andadalah womenterlalu alwaysmembuat gatheranggapan umum.<!--
[[Image:Indig1.jpg|thumb|250px|A 19th century [[engraving]] of an [[Indigenous Australians|Indigenous Australian]] encampment.]]
At the 1966 "Man the Hunter" conference, anthropologists [[Richard Borshay Lee]] and [[Irven DeVore]] suggested that [[egalitarianism]] was one of several central characteristics of nomadic hunting and gathering societies because mobility requires minimization of material possessions throughout a population; therefore, there was no surplus of resources to be accumulated by any single member.
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