|
Liga Bangsa-bangsa tidak mempunyai tentera sendiri, oleh itu, Liga Bangsa-bangsa perlu bergantung kepada negara berkuasa (yang kerap enggan) menguatkuasakan keputusannya. Selepas beberapa kejayaan dan banyak kegagalan, Liga gagal menghalang [[Kuasa Axis]] daripada tindakan agresif yang dilakukan oleh mereka pada zaman 1930-an. [[Perang Dunia Kedua]] membuktikan kegagalan Liga untuk mencegah perang dunia. [[Pertubuhan Bangsa-Bangsa Bersatu]] menggantikan Liga selepas Perang Dunia Kedua, dan mewarisi beberapa agensi dan perbadanan yang telah ditubuhkan oleh Liga.
[[Fail:Palaisgeneva.jpg|thumb|right|370px|The ''[[Palais des Nations]]'' in [[Geneva]], [[Switzerland]], built between 1929 and 1938, was constructed as the League's headquarters. Today, it serves as the [[United Nations]]' [[Europe]]an headquarters and flies the [[Flag of the United Nations|UN flag]].]]
== Asal-usul ==
[[Fail:Origin of the League of Nations.png|thumb|right|250px|''A commemorative card depicting President Wilson and the "Origin of the League of Nations"'']]
The concept of a peaceful community of nations had previously been described in [[Immanuel Kant]]’s ''[[Perpetual Peace]]''. The idea of the actual League of Nations appears to have originated with [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs|British Foreign Secretary]] [[Edward Grey, 1st Viscount Grey of Fallodon|Edward Grey]], and it was enthusiastically adopted by the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] [[President of the United States|U.S. President]] [[Woodrow Wilson]] and his advisor [[Colonel]] [[Edward M. House]] as a means of avoiding bloodshed like that of World War I. The creation of the League was a centrepiece of Wilson's [[Fourteen Points|Fourteen Points for Peace]], specifically the final point: "A general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike."
The Paris Peace Conference accepted the proposal to create the League of Nations ([[French language|French]]: ''Société des Nations'', [[German language|German]]: ''Völkerbund'') on [[January 25]], [[1919]]. The Covenant of the League of Nations was drafted by a special commission, and the League was established by Part I of the Treaty of Versailles, which was signed on [[June 28]] [[1919]]. Initially, the Charter was signed by 44 [[state]]s, including 31 states which had taken part in the war on the side of the [[Triple Entente]] or joined it during the conflict. Despite Wilson's efforts to establish and promote the League, for which he was awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in 1919, the [[United States]] neither [[ratification|ratified]] the Charter nor joined the League due to opposition from [[United States isolationism|isolationists]] in the [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]], especially influential [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] leader [[Henry Cabot Lodge]], together with Wilson's refusal to compromise.
The League held its first meeting in [[New York City]] on [[10 January]] [[1920]]. Its first action was to ratify the [[Treaty of Versailles]], officially ending World War I. The headquarters of the League moved to [[Geneva]] on [[November 1]], [[1920]], where the first general assembly of the League was held on [[November 15]], [[1920]] with representatives from 41 nations in attendance.
== Simbol-simbol ==
[[Fail:League of nations symbol.gif|thumb|right|A semi-official emblem of League of Nations used from 1939 to 1941]]
The League of Nations did not have an official [[flag]] or [[logo]]. Proposals for adopting an official symbol were made during the League's beginning in 1920, but the member states never reached agreement. However, League of Nations organizations used varying logos and flags (or none at all) in their own operations. An international contest was held in 1929 to find a design, which again failed to produce a symbol. One of the reasons for this failure may have been the fear by the member states that the power of the supranational organization might supersede them.
Finally, in 1939, a semi-official emblem emerged: two five-pointed [[star (disambiguation)|stars]] within a blue [[pentagon]]. The pentagon and the five-pointed stars were supposed to symbolise the five [[continent]]s and the [[race (historical definitions)|five races]] of mankind. In a bow on top and at the bottom, the flag had the names in [[English language|English]] (''League of Nations'') and [[French language|French]] (''Société des Nations''). This flag was used on the building of the [[1939 New York World's Fair|New York World's Fair]] in 1939 and 1940.
== Bahasa-bahasa ==
Several of these institutions were transferred to the United Nations after the [[Second World War]]. In addition to the International Labour Organisation, the Permanent Court of International Justice became a UN institution as the [[International Court of Justice]], and the Health Organization was restructured as the [[World Health Organization]].
== Mandat-mandat ==
{{main|League of Nations Mandate}}
League of Nations Mandates were established under Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations. These territories were former [[colony|colonies]] of the [[German Empire]] and the [[Ottoman Empire]] that were placed under the supervision of the League following World War I. There were three Mandate classifications:
; '''An "A" Mandate''' : This was a territory which "''had reached a stage of development where their existence as independent nations can be provisionally recognised, subject to the rendering of administrative advice and assistance by a "Mandatory" until such time as they are able to stand alone. The wishes of these communities must be a principal consideration in the selection of the Mandatory.''" These were mainly parts of the old Ottoman Empire.
; '''A "B" Mandate''' : This was a territory which "''was at such a stage that the Mandatory must be responsible for the administration of the territory under conditions which will guarantee:''
:* ''Freedom of [[conscience]] and [[religion]]''
:* ''The maintenance of [[social control|public order]] and [[public morality|morals]]''
:* ''Prohibition of abuses such as the [[slave trade]], the arms traffic and the [[distilled beverage|liquor]] traffic''
:* ''The prevention of the establishment of fortifications or military and naval bases and of military training of the natives for other than political purposes and the defence of territory''
:* ''Equal opportunities for the trade and commerce of other Members of the League.''"
; '''A "C" Mandate''' : This was a territory "''which, owing to the sparseness of their population, or their small size, or their remoteness from the centres of civilisation, or their geographical contiguity to the territory of the Mandatory, and other circumstances, can be best administered under the laws of the Mandatory.''"
(Quotations taken from ''The Essential Facts About the League of Nations'', a handbook published in [[Geneva]] in 1939).
The territories were governed by "Mandatory Powers", such as the UK in the case of the [[British Mandate of Palestine|Mandate of Palestine]] and the [[Union of South Africa]] in the case of [[South-West Africa]], until the territories were deemed capable of self-government. There were fourteen mandate territories divided up among the six Mandatory Powers of the [[United Kingdom]], [[France]], [[Belgium]], [[New Zealand]], [[Australia]] and [[Japan]]. In practice, the Mandatory Territories were treated as colonies and were regarded by critics as spoils of war. With the exception of [[Iraq]], which joined the League on [[October 3]] [[1932]], these territories did not begin to gain their independence until after the [[Second World War]], a process that did not end until 1990. Following the demise of the League, most of the remaining mandates became [[United Nations Trust Territories]].
In addition to the Mandates, the League itself governed the [[Saarland]] for 15 years, before it was returned to [[Nazi Germany|Germany]] following a plebiscite, and the [[free city]] of [[Gdańsk|Danzig]] (now [[Gdańsk]], [[Poland]]) from [[15 November]] [[1920]] to [[1 September]] [[1939]].
== Kejayaan ==
The League is generally considered to have failed in its mission to achieve disarmament, prevent war, settle disputes through diplomacy, and improve global welfare. However, it achieved significant successes in a number of areas.
=== Kepulauan Åland ===
{{main|History of Åland}}
[[Åland]] is a collection of around 6,500 islands mid-way between [[Sweden]] and [[Finland]]. The islands are exclusively [[Swedish language|Swedish]]-speaking, but Finland had sovereignty in the early 1900s. During the period from 1917 onwards, most residents wished the islands to become part of Sweden; Finland, however, did not wish to cede the islands. The Swedish government raised the issue with the League in 1921. After close consideration, the League determined that the islands should remain a part of Finland, but be governed autonomously, averting a potential war.
=== Albania ===
The border between [[Albania]] and [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] remained in dispute after the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, and Yugoslavian forces occupied some Albanian territory. After clashes with Albanian tribesmen, the Yugoslav forces invaded further. The League sent a commission of representatives from various powers to the region. The commission found in favour of Albania, and the Yugoslav forces withdrew in 1921, albeit under protest. War was again prevented.
=== Silesia Atas-atasan ===
The Treaty of Versailles had ordered a [[plebiscite]] in [[Upper Silesia]] to determine whether the territory should be part of [[Weimar Republic|Germany]] or [[Second Polish Republic|Poland]]. In the background, strong-arm tactics and discrimination against Poles led to [[riot]]ing and eventually to the first two [[Silesian Uprisings]] (1919 and 1920). In the plebiscite, roughly 59.6% (around 500,000) of the votes were cast for joining Germany, and this result led to the [[Third Silesian Uprising]] in 1921. The League was asked to settle the matter. In 1922, a six-week investigation found that the land should be split; the decision was accepted by both countries and by the majority of Upper Silesians.
=== Memel ===
The port city of [[Klaipėda|Memel]] (now Klaipėda) and the surrounding area was placed under League control after the end of the World War I and was governed by a [[France|French]] general for three years. However, the population was mostly [[Lithuania]]n, and the Lithuanian government placed a claim to the territory, with Lithuanian forces invading in 1923. The League chose to cede the land around Memel to Lithuania, but declared the port should remain an international zone; Lithuania agreed. While the decision could be seen as a failure (in that the League reacted passively to the use of force), the settlement of the issue without significant bloodshed was a point in the League's favour.
=== Greece dan Bulgaria ===
{{main|War of the Stray Dog}}
After an incident between sentries on the border between [[Greece]] and [[Bulgaria]] in 1925, Greek troops invaded their neighbour. Bulgaria ordered its troops to provide only token resistance, trusting the League to settle the dispute. The League did indeed condemn the Greek invasion, and called for both Greek withdrawal and compensation to Bulgaria. Greece complied, but complained about the disparity between their treatment and that of [[Italy]] (see [[#Corfu|Corfu]], below).
=== Saar ===
[[Saarland|Saar]] was a province formed from parts of [[Prussia]] and the [[Rhenish Palatinate]] that was established and placed under League control after the [[Treaty of Versailles]]. A plebiscite was to be held after fifteen years of League rule, to determine whether the region should belong to [[Nazi Germany|Germany]] or France. 90.3% of votes cast were in favour of becoming part of Germany in that 1935 referendum, and it became part of Germany again.
=== Mosul ===
The League successfully - parcicularly for the British and other oil-seekers - resolved a dispute between [[Iraq]] and [[Turkey]] over the control of the former Ottoman province of [[Mosul]] in 1926. According to the UK, which was awarded a League of Nations [[League of Nations#Mandates|A-mandate]] over Iraq in 1920 and therefore represented Iraq in its foreign affairs, Mosul belonged to Iraq; on the other hand, the new Turkish republic claimed the province as part of its historic heartland. A three person League of Nations committee was sent to the region in 1924 to study the case and in 1925 recommended the region to be connected to Iraq, under the condition that the UK would hold the mandate over Iraq for another 25 years, to assure the autonomous rights of the [[Kurd]]ish population. The League Council adopted the recommendation and it decided on [[16 December]] [[1925]] to award Mosul to Iraq. Although Turkey had accepted the League of Nations arbitration in the [[Treaty of Lausanne]] in 1923, it rejected the League's decision. Nonetheless, the UK, Iraq and Turkey made a treaty on [[5 June]] [[1926]], that mostly followed the decision of the League Council and also assigned Mosul to Iraq.
=== Kejayaan lain ===
The League also worked to combat the international trade in [[opium]] and [[sexual slavery]] and helped alleviate the plight of [[refugee]]s, particularly in Turkey in the period to 1926. One of its innovations in this area was its 1922 introduction of the [[Nansen passport]], an internationally recognised identity card for stateless refugees. Many of the League's successes were accomplished by its various Agencies and Commissions.
== Kelemahan-kelemahan general ==
The League did not, in the long term, succeed. The outbreak of World War II was the immediate cause of the League's demise, but there was also a variety of other, more fundamental, flaws.
The League, like the modern United Nations, lacked an armed force of its own and depended on the [[power (international)|Great Powers]] to enforce its resolutions, which they were very reluctant to do. Economic [[sanction]]s, which were the most severe measure the League could implement short of military action, were difficult to enforce and had no great impact on the target country, because they could simply trade with those outside the League. The problem is exemplified in the following passage, taken from ''The Essential Facts About the League of Nations'', a handbook published in [[Geneva]] in 1939:
:''"As regards the military sanctions provided for in paragraph 2 of Article 16, there is '''no legal obligation''' to apply them… there may be a political and moral duty incumbent on states… but, once again, there is no obligation on them."''
The League's two most important members, the United Kingdom and France, were reluctant to use sanctions and even more reluctant to resort to military action on behalf of the League. So soon after World War I, the populations and governments of the two countries were [[pacifism|pacifist]]. The [[Conservative Party (UK)|British Conservatives]] were especially tepid on the League and preferred, when in government, to negotiate treaties without the involvement of the organization. Ultimately, the UK and France both abandoned the concept of [[collective security]] in favour of [[appeasement]] in the face of growing German militarism under [[Adolf Hitler]].
Representation at the League was often a problem. Though it was intended to encompass all nations, many never joined, or their time as part of the League was short. One key weakness of the League was that the United States never joined, which took away much of the League's potential power. Even though President [[Woodrow Wilson]] had been a driving force behind the League's formation, the [[United States Senate]] voted on [[January 19]], [[1920]] not to join the League. Wilson's [[Woodrow Wilson#Incapacity|stroke]] and protracted convalescence prevented him from pursuing the issue.
The League also further weakened when the t powers left in the 1930s. [[Japan]] began as a permanent member of the Council, but saw the League as [[Europe|Euro]]-centric and withdrew in 1932. Italy also began as a permanent member of the Council but withdrew in 1937. The League had accepted Germany as a member in 1926, deeming it a "peace-loving country", but [[Adolf Hitler]] pulled Germany out when he came to power in 1933. Another major power, the [[Bolshevik]] [[Soviet Union]], was only a member from 1934, when it joined to antagonise Germany (which had left the year before), to [[December 14]], [[1939]], when it was expelled for [[Winter War|aggression against Finland]].
The League's neutrality tended to manifest itself as indecision. The League required a unanimous vote of its nine (later fifteen) member Council to enact a resolution, so conclusive and effective action was difficult, if not impossible. It was also slow in coming to its decisions. Some decisions also required unanimous consent of the Assembly; that is, agreement by every member of the League.
Another important weakness of the League was that it tried to represent all nations, but most members protected their own national interests and were not committed to the League or its goals. The reluctance of all League members to use the option of military action showed this to the full. If the League had shown more resolve initially, countries, governments and dictators may have been more wary of risking its wrath in later years. These failings were, in part, among the reasons for the outbreak of World War II.
Moreover, the League's advocacy of disarmament for the United Kingdom and France (and other members) whilst at the same time advocating collective security meant that the League was unwittingly depriving itself of the only forceful means by which its authority would be upheld. This was because if the League was to force countries to abide by international law it would primarily be the [[Royal Navy]] and the [[French Army]] which would do the fighting. Futhermore, the [[United Kingdom]] and [[France]] were not rich enough to enforce international law across the globe, even if they wished to do so. For its members League obligations meant there was a danger that states would get drawn into international disputes which did not directly affect their respective national interests.
On [[23 June]] [[1936]], in the wake of the collapse of League efforts to restrain Italy's war of conquest against Abyssinia, [[British Prime Minister]] [[Stanley Baldwin]] told the [[House of Commons]] that [[collective security]] "failed ultimately because of the reluctance of nearly all the nations in Europe to proceed to what I might call military sanctions.... [T]he real reason, or the main reason, was that we discovered in the process of weeks that there was no country except the aggressor country which was ready for war.... [I]f collective action is to be a reality and not merely a thing to be talked about, it means not only that every country is to be ready for war; but must be ready to go to war at once. That is a terrible thing, but it is an essential part of collective security." It was an accurate assessment and a lesson which clearly was applied in the formation of the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]], which stood as the League's successor insofar as its role as guarantor of the security of Western Europe was concerned.
== Kegagalan spesifik ==
== Lihat juga ==
* [[Ahli-ahliNegara anggota Liga Bangsa]]
* [[Henry Cabot Lodge]], [[Senat Amerika Syarikat|Senator Republikan A.S.]] yang mengetuai penentangan ke atas penyertaan A.S. dke dalam Liga Bangsa
* ''[[Palais des Nations]]'', dibina sebagai ibu pejabat Liga Bangsa
| 