Bahasa-bahasa Sino-Tibet
(Dilencongkan dari Bahasa Sino-Tibetan)
Bahasa-bahasa Sino-Tibet, juga dikenali sebagai keluarga bahasa Sino-Tibet dan bahasa-bahasa Trans-Himalaya dalam beberapa sumber,[2][3] ialah sebuah keluarga bahasa terdiri daripada lebih 400 bahasa yang ditutur di Asia Timur, Asia Tenggara dan sebahagian Asia Selatan. Keluarga ini merupakan keluarga bahasa kedua terbesar selepas bahasa-bahasa Indo-Eropah dari segi bilangan penutur asli.[4] Bahasa-bahasa Sino-Tibet dengan penutur asli terbanyak ialah bahasa Cina (1.3 bilion penutur), bahasa Burma (33 juta) dan bahasa-bahasa Tibet (8 juta). Bahasa-bahasa lain di bawah keluarga ini dituturkan di pergunungan Himalaya, kawasan massif Asia Tenggara, serta kawasan pinggiran tanah tinggi Tibet. Kebanyakan bahasa-bahasa Sino-Tibet tersebut ditutur oleh masyarakat kecil di kawasan gunung terpencil dan kurang didokumenkan.
| Bahasa Sino-Tibet | |
|---|---|
| Bahasa Trans-Himalaya | |
| Taburan geografi: | Asia Timur, Asia Selatan, Asia Tenggara |
| Klasifikasi bahasa: | Salah satu daripada keluarga-keluarga bahasa utama di dunia |
| Bahasa-proto: | Bahasa Sino-Tibet Purba |
| Pembahagian: | |
| ISO 639-2 / 5: | sit |
| Linguasphere: | 79- (phylozon) |
| Glottolog: | sino1245[1] |
 Pembahagian kumpulan bahasa-bahasa Sino-Tibet | |
Beberapa subkumpulan beraras rendah bahasa-bahasa Sino-Tibet sudah direkonstruksi secara selamat, tetapi rekonstruksi bahasa proto keluarga bahasa ini masih lagi pada tahap awal, maka struktur aras leluhur bahasa Sino-Tibet masih kurang kepastiannya. Walaupun keluarga bahasa ini biasanya terbahagi kepada cabang-cabang Sinitik (seperti bahasa Cina) dan Tibet-Burma, asal usul bersama bahasa-bahasa bukan Sinitik masih tidak dapat ditentusahkan lagi. Walaupun ahli-ahli linguistik Cina secara amnya menambah bahasa-bahasa Kra-Dai dan bahasa-bahasa Hmong-Mien ke dalam keluarga bahasa tersebut, kebanyakan ahli-ahli linguistik yang lain telah mengeluarkan dari pengelasan bawah keluarga bahasa Sino-Tibet sejak 1940-an lagi. Beberapa perkaitan kepada keluarga bahasa yang lain telah dicadangkan, namun tidak satu pun yang diterima secara meluas.
Sejarah sunting
Hubungan genetik antara bahasa-bahasa Cina, Tibet, Burma dan lain-lain telah diperkenalkan pertama kalinya pada awal abad ke-19 dan kini diterima secara meluas. Fokus permulaan pada bahasa-bahasa yang mempunyai tamadun dengan tradisi kesusasteraan yang lama jangka masanya telah diperluas dan memasukkan bahasa-bahasa yang kurang luas dituturkan, dan sebahagiannya baru sahaja mempunyai penulisan manakala sebahagian yang lain langsung tiada tulisan lagi. Namun, rekonstruksi keluarga bahasa ini adalah kurang berkembang berbanding keluarga bahasa yang lain seperti bahasa-bahasa Indo-Eropah atau bahasa-bahasa Austroasiatik. Kerumitan yang dihadapi termasuklah keanekaragaman bahasa-bahasa Sino-Tibet, kekurangan bentuk infleksi pada kebanyakan bahasa, serta kesan-kesan daripada pertembungan bahasa. Tambahan pula, banyak bahasa-bahasa kecil dituturkan di kawasan-kawasan pergunungan yang susah untuk dijejaki, dan kebiasaannya juga merupakan zon penyempadanan yang sensitif.[5]
Nota sunting
Rujukan sunting
- ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, penyunting (2017). "Sino-Tibetan". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
- ^ van Driem (2014), m/s. 16.
- ^ List, Lai & Starostin (2019), m/s. 1.
- ^ Handel (2008), m/s. 422.
- ^ Handel (2008), m/s. 422, 434–436.
Sumber sunting
- Baxter, William H. (1992), A Handbook of Old Chinese Phonology, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-012324-1.
- Beckwith, Christopher I. (1996), "The Morphological Argument for the Existence of Sino-Tibetan", Pan-Asiatic Linguistics: Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Languages and Linguistics, January 8–10, 1996, Bangkok: Mahidol University at Salaya, m/s. 812–826.
- ——— (2002a), "Introduction", dalam Beckwith, Christopher (penyunting), Medieval Tibeto-Burman languages, Brill, m/s. xiii–xix, ISBN 978-90-04-12424-0.
- ——— (2002b), "The Sino-Tibetan problem", dalam Beckwith, Christopher (penyunting), Medieval Tibeto-Burman languages, Brill, m/s. 113–158, ISBN 978-90-04-12424-0.
- Benedict, Paul K. (1942), "Thai, Kadai, and Indonesian: A New Alignment in Southeastern Asia", American Anthropologist, 44 (4): 576–601, doi:10.1525/aa.1942.44.4.02a00040, JSTOR 663309.
- ——— (1972), Sino-Tibetan: A Conspectus (PDF), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-08175-7.
- Blench, Roger (2009), "If agriculture cannot be reconstructed for proto-Sino-Tibetan what are the consequences?" (PDF), 42nd Conference on Sino-Tibetan Language and Linguistics, Chiang Mai.
- Blench, Roger; Post, Mark (2014), "Rethinking Sino-Tibetan phylogeny from the perspective of North East Indian languages", dalam Hill, Nathan W.; Owen-Smith, Thomas (penyunting), Trans-Himalayan Linguistics, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, m/s. 71–104, ISBN 978-3-11-031083-2. (preprint Diarkibkan 2020-04-26 di Wayback Machine)
- Bodman, Nicholas C. (1980), "Proto-Chinese and Sino-Tibetan: data towards establishing the nature of the relationship", dalam van Coetsem, Frans; Waugh, Linda R. (penyunting), Contributions to historical linguistics: issues and materials, Leiden: E. J. Brill, m/s. 34–199, ISBN 978-90-04-06130-9.
- Burling, Robbins (1983), "The Sal Languages" (PDF), Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area, 7 (2): 1–32.
- DeLancey, Scott (2009), "Sino-Tibetan languages", dalam Comrie, Bernard (penyunting), The World's Major Languages (ed. 2nd), Routledge, m/s. 693–702, ISBN 978-1-134-26156-7.
- van Driem, George (1987), A grammar of Limbu, Mouton grammar library, 4, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-011282-5.
- ——— (1997), "Sino-Bodic", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 60 (3): 455–488, doi:10.1017/S0041977X0003250X, S2CID 246638512 Check
|s2cid=value (bantuan). - ——— (2001), Languages of the Himalayas: An Ethnolinguistic Handbook of the Greater Himalayan Region, Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-12062-4.
- ——— (2005), "Tibeto-Burman vs Indo-Chinese" (PDF), dalam Sagart, Laurent; Blench, Roger; Sanchez-Mazas, Alicia (penyunting), The Peopling of East Asia: Putting Together Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics, London: Routledge Curzon, m/s. 81–106, ISBN 978-0-415-32242-3.
- ——— (2007), "The diversity of the Tibeto-Burman language family and the linguistic ancestry of Chinese" (PDF), Bulletin of Chinese Linguistics, 1 (2): 211–270, doi:10.1163/2405478X-90000023.
- ——— (2014), "Trans-Himalayan" (PDF), dalam Owen-Smith, Thomas; Hill, Nathan W. (penyunting), Trans-Himalayan Linguistics: Historical and Descriptive Linguistics of the Himalayan Area, Berlin: de Gruyter, m/s. 11–40, ISBN 978-3-11-031083-2.
- Dryer, Matthew S. (2003), "Word order in Sino-Tibetan languages from a typological and geographical perspective", dalam Thurgood, Graham; LaPolla, Randy J. (penyunting), The Sino-Tibetan languages, London: Routledge, m/s. 43–55, ISBN 978-0-7007-1129-1.
- Eberhard, David M.; Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D., penyunting (2019), Ethnologue: Languages of the World (ed. 22nd), Dallas, Texas: SIL International.
- Finck, Franz Nikolaus (1909), Die Sprachstämme des Erdkreises, Leipzig: B.G. Teubner.
- Gong, Hwang-cherng (1980), "A Comparative Study of the Chinese, Tibetan, and Burmese Vowel Systems", Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology, 51: 455–489.
- Hale, Austin (1982), Research on Tibeto-Burman Languages, State-of-the-art report, Trends in linguistics, 14, Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 978-90-279-3379-9.
- Handel, Zev (2008), "What is Sino-Tibetan? Snapshot of a Field and a Language Family in Flux", Language and Linguistics Compass, 2 (3): 422–441, doi:10.1111/j.1749-818X.2008.00061.x.
- Hill, Nathan W. (2012), "The six vowel hypothesis of Old Chinese in comparative context", Bulletin of Chinese Linguistics, 6 (2): 1–69, doi:10.1163/2405478x-90000100.
- ——— (2014), "Cognates of Old Chinese *-n, *-r, and *-j in Tibetan and Burmese", Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale, 43 (2): 91–109, doi:10.1163/19606028-00432p02, S2CID 170371949.
- ——— (2015), "The Contribution of Tangut to Trans-Himalayan Comparative Linguistics" (PDF), Archiv Orientální, 83: 187–200, doi:10.47979/aror.j.83.1.187-200.
- Klaproth, Julius (1823), Asia Polyglotta, Paris: B.A. Shubart.
- Kuhn, Ernst (1889), "Beiträge zur Sprachenkunde Hinterindiens" (PDF), Sitzungsberichte der Königlichen Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Philosophisch-Philologische und Historische Klasse, Sitzung vom 2 März 1889, Munich: Verlag der Königlich Akademie, m/s. 189–236.
- LaPolla, Randy J. (2003), "Overview of Sino-Tibetan morphosyntax", dalam Thurgood, Graham; LaPolla, Randy J. (penyunting), The Sino-Tibetan languages, London: Routledge, m/s. 22–42, ISBN 978-0-7007-1129-1.
- Li, Fang-Kuei (1937), "Languages and Dialects", dalam Shih, Ch'ao-ying; Chang, Ch'i-hsien (penyunting), The Chinese Year Book, Commercial Press, m/s. 59–65, reprinted as Li, Fang-Kuei (1973), "Languages and Dialects of China", Journal of Chinese Linguistics, 1 (1): 1–13, JSTOR 23749774.
- List, Johann-Mattis; Lai, Yunfan; Starostin, George (2019), "Preface: 'Old Chinese and Friends': new approaches to historical linguistics of the Sino-Tibetan area", Journal of Language Relationship, 17 (1): 1–6, doi:10.31826/jlr-2019-171-204, S2CID 203538127.
- Logan, James R. (1856), "The Maruwi of the Baniak Islands", Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia, 1 (1): 1–42.
- ——— (1858), "The West-Himalaic or Tibetan tribes of Asam, Burma and Pegu", Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia, 2 (1): 68–114.
- Matisoff, James A. (1991), "Sino-Tibetan Linguistics: Present State and Future Prospects", Annual Review of Anthropology, 20: 469–504, doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.20.1.469, JSTOR 2155809.
- ——— (2000), "On 'Sino-Bodic' and Other Symptoms of Neosubgroupitis", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 63 (3): 356–369, doi:10.1017/s0041977x00008442, JSTOR 1559492, S2CID 163147464.
- ——— (2003), Handbook of Proto-Tibeto-Burman: System and Philosophy of Sino-Tibetan Reconstruction, Berkeley: University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-09843-5.
- ——— (2015), The Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary and Thesaurus (PDF), Berkeley: The Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary and Thesaurus Project, LCCN 2014911220.
- Miller, Roy Andrew (1974), "Sino-Tibetan: Inspection of a Conspectus", Journal of the American Oriental Society, 94 (2): 195–209, doi:10.2307/600891, JSTOR 600891.
- Norman, Jerry (1988), Chinese, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-29653-3.
- Przyluski, Jean (1924), "Langues sino-tibétaines", dalam Meillet, Antoine; Cohen, Marcel (penyunting), Les langues du monde, Librairie ancienne Édouard Champion, m/s. 361–384.
- Przyluski, J.; Luce, G. H. (1931), "The Number 'A Hundred' in Sino-Tibetan", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 6 (3): 667–668, doi:10.1017/S0041977X00093150, S2CID 176893024.
- Sagart, Laurent (2005), "Sino-Tibetan–Austronesian: an updated and improved argument", dalam Sagart, Laurent; Blench, Roger; Sanchez-Mazas, Alicia (penyunting), The Peopling of East Asia: Putting Together Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics, London: Routledge Curzon, m/s. 161–176, ISBN 978-0-415-32242-3.
- Sagart, Laurent; Jacques, Guillaume; Lai, Yunfan; Ryder, Robin; Thouzeau, Valentin; Greenhill, Simon J.; List, Johann-Mattis (2019), "Dated language phylogenies shed light on the history of Sino-Tibetan", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 116 (21): 10317–10322, doi:10.1073/pnas.1817972116, PMC 6534992, PMID 31061123.
- "Origin of Sino-Tibetan language family revealed by new research". ScienceDaily (Siaran akhbar). May 6, 2019.
- Sapir, Edward (1925), "Review: Les Langues du Monde", Modern Language Notes, 40 (6): 373–375, doi:10.2307/2914102, JSTOR 2914102.
- Shafer, Robert (1952), "Athapaskan and Sino-Tibetan", International Journal of American Linguistics, 18 (1): 12–19, doi:10.1086/464142, S2CID 144394083.
- ——— (1955), "Classification of the Sino-Tibetan languages", Word (Journal of the Linguistic Circle of New York), 11 (1): 94–111, doi:10.1080/00437956.1955.11659552.
- ——— (1966), Introduction to Sino-Tibetan, 1, Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, ISBN 978-3-447-01559-2.
- Sharma, Devidatta (1988), A Descriptive Grammar of Kinnauri, Mittal Publications, ISBN 978-81-7099-049-9.
- Starosta, Stanley (2005), "Proto-East Asian and the origin and dispersal of languages of east and southeast Asia and the Pacific", dalam Sagart, Laurent; Blench, Roger; Sanchez-Mazas, Alicia (penyunting), The Peopling of East Asia: Putting Together Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics, London: Routledge Curzon, m/s. 182–197, ISBN 978-0-415-32242-3.
- Taylor, Keith (1992), "The Early Kingdoms", dalam Tarling, Nicholas (penyunting), The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia Volume 1: From Early Times to c. 1800, Cambridge University Press, m/s. 137–182, doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521355056.005, ISBN 978-0-521-35505-6.
- Thurgood, Graham (2003), "A subgrouping of the Sino-Tibetan languages", dalam Thurgood, Graham; LaPolla, Randy J. (penyunting), The Sino-Tibetan languages, London: Routledge, m/s. 3–21, ISBN 978-0-7007-1129-1.
- Tournadre, Nicolas (2014), "The Tibetic languages and their classification", dalam Owen-Smith, Thomas; Hill, Nathan W. (penyunting), Trans-Himalayan Linguistics: Historical and Descriptive Linguistics of the Himalayan Area, De Gruyter, m/s. 103–129, ISBN 978-3-11-031074-0.
- Wheatley, Julian K. (2003), "Burmese", dalam Thurgood, Graham; LaPolla, Randy J. (penyunting), The Sino-Tibetan languages, London: Routledge, m/s. 195–207, ISBN 978-0-7007-1129-1.
- Yanson, Rudolf A. (2006), "Notes on the evolution of the Burmese phonological system", dalam Beckwith, Christopher I. (penyunting), Medieval Tibeto-Burman Languages II, Leiden: Brill, m/s. 103–120, ISBN 978-90-04-15014-0.
- Zhang, Menghan; Yan, Shi; Pan, Wuyun; Jin, Li (2019), "Phylogenetic evidence for Sino-Tibetan origin in northern China in the Late Neolithic", Nature, 569 (7754): 112–115, Bibcode:2019Natur.569..112Z, doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1153-z, PMID 31019300, S2CID 129946000.
- "Linguistics: The roots of the Sino-Tibetan language family". Nature. April 25, 2019.
General sunting
- Bauman, James (1974), "Pronominal Verb Morphology in Tibeto-Burman" (PDF), Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area, 1 (1): 108–155.
- Baxter, William H. (1995), "'A Stronger Affinity ... Than Could Have Been Produced by Accident': A Probabilistic Comparison of Old Chinese and Tibeto-Burman", dalam Wang, William S.-Y. (penyunting), The Ancestry of the Chinese Language, Journal of Chinese Linguistics Monograph Series, 8, Berkeley: Project on Linguistic Analysis, m/s. 1–39, JSTOR 23826142.
- Benedict, Paul K. (1976), "Sino-Tibetan: Another Look", Journal of the American Oriental Society, 96 (2): 167–197, doi:10.2307/599822, JSTOR 599822.
- Blench, Roger; Post, Mark (2011), (De)classifying Arunachal languages: Reconstructing the evidence (PDF).
- Coblin, W. South (1986), A Sinologist's Handlist of Sino-Tibetan Lexical Comparisons, Monumenta Serica monograph series, 18, Nettetal: Steyler Verlag, ISBN 978-3-87787-208-6.
- van Driem, George (1995), "Black Mountain Conjugational Morphology, Proto-Tibeto-Burman Morphosyntax, and the Linguistic Position of Chinese" (PDF), Senri Ethnological Studies, 41: 229–259.
- ——— (2003), "Tibeto-Burman vs. Sino-Tibetan", dalam Winter, Werner; Bauer, Brigitte L. M.; Pinault, Georges-Jean (penyunting), Language in time and space: a Festschrift for Werner Winter on the occasion of his 80th birthday, Walter de Gruyter, m/s. 101–119, ISBN 978-3-11-017648-3.
- Gong, Hwang-cherng (2002), Hàn Zàng yǔ yánjiū lùnwén jí 漢藏語硏究論文集 [Collected papers on Sino-Tibetan linguistics], Taipei: Academia Sinica, ISBN 978-957-671-872-4.
- Jacques, Guillaume (2006), "La morphologie du sino-tibétain", La Linguistique Comparative en France Aujourd'hui.
- Kuhn, Ernst (1883), Über Herkunft und Sprache der transgangetischen Völker (PDF), Munich: Verlag der Königlich Bayerischen Akademie.
- Starostin, Sergei; Peiros, Ilia (1996), A Comparative Vocabulary of Five Sino-Tibetan Languages, Melbourne University Press, OCLC 53387435.
Pautan luar sunting
- James Matisoff, Tibeto-Burman languages and their subgrouping
- The Genetic Position of Chinese, by Guillaume Jacques
- Sino-Tibetan at the Linguist List MultiTree Project: Genealogical trees attributed to Conrady 1896, Benedict 1942, Shafer 1955, Benedict 1972, Egerod 1991, Matisoff & Namkung 1996, Peiros 1998, Thurgood & LaPolla 2003, and Matisoff 2006. (The tree attributed to Bradley 2007 does not correspond to that article.)
Jika anda melihat rencana yang menggunakan templat {{tunas}} ini, gantikanlah ia dengan templat tunas yang lebih spesifik.